Was ist das eigentlich? Cyberrisiken verständlich erklärt

Es wird viel über Cyberrisiken gesprochen. Oftmals fehlt aber das grundsätzliche Verständnis, was Cyberrisiken überhaupt sind. Ohne diese zu verstehen, lässt sich aber auch kein Versicherungsschutz gestalten.

Beinahe alle Aktivitäten des täglichen Lebens können heute über das Internet abgewickelt werden. Online-Shopping und Online-Banking sind im Alltag angekommen. Diese Entwicklung trifft längst nicht nur auf Privatleute, sondern auch auf Firmen zu. Das Schlagwort Industrie 4.0 verheißt bereits eine zunehmende Vernetzung diverser geschäftlicher Vorgänge über das Internet.

Anbieter von Cyberversicherungen für kleinere und mittelständische Unternehmen (KMU) haben Versicherungen die Erfahrung gemacht, dass trotz dieser eindeutigen Entwicklung Cyberrisiken immer noch unterschätzt werden, da sie als etwas Abstraktes wahrgenommen werden. Für KMU kann dies ein gefährlicher Trugschluss sein, da gerade hier Cyberattacken existenzbedrohende Ausmaße annehmen können. So wird noch häufig gefragt, was Cyberrisiken eigentlich sind. Diese Frage ist mehr als verständlich, denn ohne (Cyber-)Risiken bestünde auch kein Bedarf für eine (Cyber-)Versicherung.

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Exam Number : 201-450
Exam Name : LPIC-2 test 201, Part 1 of 2, version 4.5
Vendor Name : LPI
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201-450 test Format | 201-450 Course Contents | 201-450 Course Outline | 201-450 test Syllabus | 201-450 test Objectives


Exam Title :
LPIC-2 Linux Engineer

Exam ID :
201-450

90 mins

Questions in test :
60

Passing Score :
500 / 800

Exam Center :
LPI Marketplace

Real Questions :
LPI LPIC-2 Real Questions

VCE VCE test :
LPI 201-450 Certification VCE Practice Test






Topic 200: Capacity Planning

200.1 Measure and Troubleshoot Resource Usage

Weight: 6

Description: Candidates should be able to measure hardware resource and network bandwidth, identify and troubleshoot resource problems.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- Measure CPU usage

- Measure memory usage

- Measure disk I/O

- Measure network I/O

- Measure firewalling and routing throughput

- Map client bandwidth usage

- Match / correlate system symptoms with likely problems

- Estimate throughput and identify bottlenecks in a system including networking



The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

- iostat

- netstat

- w

- top

- sar

- processes blocked on I/O

- blocks out

- vmstat

- pstree, ps

- Isof

- uptime

- swap

- blocks in



200.2 Predict Future Resource Needs

Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should be able to monitor resource usage to predict future resource needs.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- Use monitoring and measurement tools to monitor IT infrastructure usage.

- Predict capacity break point of a configuration

- Observe growth rate of capacity usage

- Graph the trend of capacity usage

- Awareness of monitoring solutions such as Icinga2, Nagios, collectd, MRTG and Cacti



The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

- diagnose

- predict growth

- resource exhaustion



Topic 201: Linux Kernel

201.1 Kernel Components

Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should be able to utilize kernel components that are necessary to specific hardware, hardware drivers, system resources and requirements. This objective includes implementing different types of kernel images, identifying stable and development kernels and patches, as well as using kernel modules.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- Kernel 2.6.x, 3.x and 4.x documentation



Terms and Utilities:

- /usr/src/linux/

- /usr/src/linux/Documentation/

- zImage

- bzImage

- xz compression



201.2 Compiling a kernel

Weight: 3

Description: Candidates should be able to properly configure a kernel to include or disable specific features of the Linux kernel as necessary. This objective includes compiling and recompiling the Linux kernel as needed, updating and noting changes in a new kernel, creating an initrd image and installing new kernels.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- /usr/src/linux/

- Kernel Makefiles

- Kernel 2.6.x/3.x make targets

- Customize the current kernel configuration.

- Build a new kernel and appropriate kernel modules.

- Install a new kernel and any modules.

- Ensure that the boot manager can locate the new kernel and associated files.

- Module configuration files

- Use DKMS to compile kernel modules.

- Awareness of dracut



Terms and Utilities:

- mkinitrd

- mkinitramfs

- make

- make targets (all, config, xconfig, menuconfig, gconfig, oldconfig, mrproper, zImage, bzImage, modules, modules_install, rpm-pkg, binrpm-pkg, deb-pkg)

- gzip

- bzip2

- module tools

- /usr/src/linux/.config

- /lib/modules/kernel-version/

- depmod

- dkms



201.3 Kernel runtime management and troubleshooting

Weight: 4

Description: Candidates should be able to manage and/or query a 2.6.x, 3.x or 4.x kernel and its loadable modules. Candidates should be able to identify and correct common boot and run time issues. Candidates should understand device detection and management using udev. This objective includes troubleshooting udev rules.


Key Knowledge Areas:
- Use command-line utilities to get information about the currently running kernel and kernel modules

- Manually load and unload kernel modules

- Determine when modules can be unloaded

- Determine what parameters a module accepts

- Configure the system to load modules by names other than their file name.

- /proc filesystem

- Content of /, /boot/ , and /lib/modules/

- Tools and utilities to analyze information about the available hardware

- udev rules



Terms and Utilities:

- /lib/modules/kernel-version/modules.dep

- module configuration files in /etc/

- /proc/sys/kernel/

- /sbin/depmod

- /sbin/rmmod

- /sbin/modinfo

- /bin/dmesg

- /sbin/lspci

- /usr/bin/lsdev

- /sbin/lsmod

- /sbin/modprobe

- /sbin/insmod

- /bin/uname

- /usr/bin/lsusb

- /etc/sysctl.conf, /etc/sysctl.d/

- /sbin/sysctl

- udevmonitor

- udevadm monitor

- /etc/udev/



Topic 202: System Startup

202.1 Customizing SysV-init system startup

Weight: 3

Description: Candidates should be able to query and modify the behaviour of system services at various targets / run levels. A thorough understanding of the systemd, SysV Init and the Linux boot process is required. This objective includes interacting with systemd targets and SysV init run levels.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- Systemd

- SysV init

- Linux Standard Base Specification (LSB)



Terms and Utilities:

- /usr/lib/systemd/

- /etc/systemd/

- /run/systemd/

- systemctl

- systemd-delta

- /etc/inittab

- /etc/init.d/

- /etc/rc.d/

- chkconfig

- update-rc.d

- init and telinit



202.2 System Recovery

Weight: 4

Description: Candidates should be able to properly manipulate a Linux system during both the boot process and during recovery mode. This objective includes using both the init utility and init-related kernel options. Candidates should be able to determine the cause of errors in loading and usage of bootloaders. GRUB version 2 and GRUB Legacy are the bootloaders of interest. Both BIOS and UEFI systems are covered.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- BIOS and UEFI

- NVMe booting

- GRUB version 2 and Legacy

- grub shell

- boot loader start and hand off to kernel

- kernel loading

- hardware initialisation and setup

- daemon/service initialisation and setup

- Know the different boot loader install locations on a hard disk or removable device.

- Overwrite standard boot loader options and using boot loader shells.

- Use systemd rescue and emergency modes.



Terms and Utilities:

- mount

- fsck

- inittab, telinit and init with SysV init

- The contents of /boot/, /boot/grub/ and /boot/efi/

- EFI System Partition (ESP)

- GRUB

- grub-install

- efibootmgr

- UEFI shell

- initrd, initramfs

- Master boot record

- systemctl



202.3 Alternate Bootloaders

Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should be aware of other bootloaders and their major features.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- SYSLINUX, ISOLINUX, PXELINUX

- Understanding of PXE for both BIOS and UEFI

- Awareness of systemd-boot and U-Boot



Terms and Utilities:

- syslinux

- extlinux

- isolinux.bin

- isolinux.cfg

- isohdpfx.bin

- efiboot.img

- pxelinux.0

- pxelinux.cfg/

- uefi/shim.efi

- uefi/grubx64.efi



Topic 203: Filesystem and Devices

203.1 Operating the Linux filesystem

Weight: 4

Description: Candidates should be able to properly configure and navigate the standard Linux filesystem. This objective includes configuring and mounting various filesystem types.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- The concept of the fstab configuration

- Tools and utilities for handling swap partitions and files

- Use of UUIDs for identifying and mounting file systems

- Understanding of systemd mount units



Terms and Utilities:

- /etc/fstab

- /etc/mtab

- /proc/mounts

- mount and umount

- blkid

- sync

- swapon

- swapoff



203.2 Maintaining a Linux filesystem​

Weight: 3

Description: Candidates should be able to properly maintain a Linux filesystem using system utilities. This objective includes manipulating standard filesystems and monitoring SMART devices.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- Tools and utilities to manipulate and ext2, ext3 and ext4

- Tools and utilities to perform basic Btrfs operations, including subvolumes and snapshots

- Tools and utilities to manipulate XFS

- Awareness of ZFS



Terms and Utilities:

- mkfs (mkfs.*)

- mkswap

- fsck (fsck.*)

- tune2fs, dumpe2fs and debugfs

- btrfs, btrfs-convert

- xfs_info, xfs_check, xfs_repair, xfsdump and xfsrestore

- smartd, smartctl



203.3 Creating and configuring filesystem options

Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should be able to configure automount filesystems using AutoFS. This objective includes configuring automount for network and device filesystems. Also included is creating filesystems for devices such as CD-ROMs and a basic feature knowledge of encrypted filesystems.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- autofs configuration files

- Understanding of automount units

- UDF and ISO9660 tools and utilities

- Awareness of other CD-ROM filesystems (HFS)

- Awareness of CD-ROM filesystem extensions (Joliet, Rock Ridge, El Torito)

- Basic feature knowledge of data encryption (dm-crypt / LUKS)



Terms and Utilities:

- /etc/auto.master

- /etc/auto.[dir]

- mkisofs

- cryptsetup



Topic 204: Advanced Storage Device Administration

204.1 Configuring RAID

Weight: 3

Description: Candidates should be able to configure and implement software RAID. This objective includes using and configuring RAID 0, 1 and 5.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- Software raid configuration files and utilities



Terms and Utilities:

- mdadm.conf

- mdadm

- /proc/mdstat

- partition type 0xFD



204.2 Adjusting Storage Device Access

Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should be able to configure kernel options to support various drives. This objective includes software tools to view & modify hard disk settings including iSCSI devices.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- Tools and utilities to configure DMA for IDE devices including ATAPI and SATA

- Tools and utilities to configure Solid State Drives including AHCI and NVMe

- Tools and utilities to manipulate or analyse system resources (e.g. interrupts)

- Awareness of sdparm command and its uses

- Tools and utilities for iSCSI

- Awareness of SAN, including relevant protocols (AoE, FCoE)



Terms and Utilities:

- hdparm, sdparm

- nvme

- tune2fs

- fstrim

- sysctl

- /dev/hd*, /dev/sd*, /dev/nvme*

- iscsiadm, scsi_id, iscsid and iscsid.conf

- WWID, WWN, LUN numbers



204.3 Logical Volume Manager

Weight: 3

Description: Candidates should be able to create and remove logical volumes, volume groups, and physical volumes. This objective includes snapshots and resizing logical volumes.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- Tools in the LVM suite

- Resizing, renaming, creating, and removing logical volumes, volume groups, and physical volumes

- Creating and maintaining snapshots

- Activating volume groups



Terms and Utilities:

- /sbin/pv*

- /sbin/lv*

- /sbin/vg*

- mount

- /dev/mapper/

- lvm.conf



Topic 205: Network Configuration

205.1 Basic networking configuration

Weight: 3

Description: Candidates should be able to configure a network device to be able to connect to a local, wired or wireless, and a wide-area network. This objective includes being able to communicate between various subnets within a single network including both IPv4 and IPv6 networks.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- Utilities to configure and manipulate ethernet network interfaces

- Configuring basic access to wireless networks



Terms and Utilities:

- ip

- ifconfig

- route

- arp

- iw

- iwconfig

- iwlist



205.2 Advanced Network Configuration and Troubleshooting

Weight: 4

Description: Candidates should be able to configure a network device to implement various network authentication schemes. This objective includes configuring a multi-homed network device and resolving communication problems.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- Utilities to manipulate routing tables

- Utilities to configure and manipulate ethernet network interfaces

- Utilities to analyze the status of the network devices

- Utilities to monitor and analyze the TCP/IP traffic



Terms and Utilities:

- ip

- ifconfig

- route

- arp

- ss

- netstat

- lsof

- ping, ping6

- nc

- tcpdump

- nmap



205.3 Troubleshooting Network Issues

Weight: 4

Description: Candidates should be able to identify and correct common network setup issues, to include knowledge of locations for basic configuration files and commands.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- Location and content of access restriction files

- Utilities to configure and manipulate ethernet network interfaces

- Utilities to manage routing tables

- Utilities to list network states.

- Utilities to gain information about the network configuration

- Methods of information about the recognized and used hardware devices

- System initialization files and their contents (SysV init process)

- Awareness of NetworkManager and its impact on network configuration



Terms and Utilities:

- ip

- ifconfig

- route

- ss

- netstat

- /etc/network/, /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/

- ping, ping6

- traceroute, traceroute6

- mtr

- hostname

- System log files such as /var/log/syslog, /var/log/messages and the systemd journal

- dmesg

- /etc/resolv.conf

- /etc/hosts

- /etc/hostname, /etc/HOSTNAME

- /etc/hosts.allow, /etc/hosts.deny



Topic 206: System Maintenance

206.1 Make and install programs from source

Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should be able to build and install an executable program from source. This objective includes being able to unpack a file of sources.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- Unpack source code using common compression and archive utilities

- Understand basics of invoking make to compile programs

- Apply parameters to a configure script

- Know where sources are stored by default



Terms and Utilities:

- /usr/src/

- gunzip

- gzip

- bzip2

- xz

- tar

- configure

- make

- uname

- install

- patch



206.2 Backup operations

Weight: 3

Description: Candidates should be able to use system tools to back up important system data.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- Knowledge about directories that have to be include in backups

- Awareness of network backup solutions such as Amanda, Bacula, Bareos and BackupPC

- Knowledge of the benefits and drawbacks of tapes, CDR, disk or other backup media

- Perform partial and manual backups.

- Verify the integrity of backup files.

- Partially or fully restore backups.

Terms and Utilities:

- /bin/sh

- dd

- tar

- /dev/st* and /dev/nst*

- mt

- rsync



206.3 Notify users on system-related issues

Weight: 1

Description: Candidates should be able to notify the users about current issues related to the system.



Key Knowledge Areas:

- Automate communication with users through logon messages

- Inform active users of system maintenance



Terms and Utilities:

- /etc/issue

- /etc/issue.net

- /etc/motd

- wall

- /sbin/shutdown

- systemctl



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Warum sind Cyberrisiken so schwer greifbar?

Als mehr oder weniger neuartiges Phänomen stellen Cyberrisiken Unternehmen und Versicherer vor besondere Herausforderungen. Nicht nur die neuen Schadenszenarien sind abstrakter oder noch nicht bekannt. Häufig sind immaterielle Werte durch Cyberrisiken in Gefahr. Diese wertvollen Vermögensgegenstände sind schwer bewertbar.

Obwohl die Gefahr durchaus wahrgenommen wird, unterschätzen viele Firmen ihr eigenes Risiko. Dies liegt unter anderem auch an den Veröffentlichungen zu Cyberrisiken. In der Presse finden sich unzählige Berichte von Cyberattacken auf namhafte und große Unternehmen. Den Weg in die Presse finden eben nur die spektakulären Fälle. Die dort genannten Schadenszenarien werden dann für das eigene Unternehmen als unrealistisch eingestuft. Die für die KMU nicht minder gefährlichen Cyber­attacken werden nur selten publiziert.

Aufgrund der fehlenden öffentlichen Meldungen von Sicherheitsvorfällen an Sicherheitsbehörden und wegen der fehlenden Presseberichte fällt es schwer, Fakten und Zahlen zur Risikolage zu erheben. Aber ohne diese Grundlage fällt es schwer, in entsprechende Sicherheitsmaßnahmen zu investieren.

Erklärungsleitfaden anhand eines Ursache-Wirkungs-Modells

Häufig nähert man sich dem Thema Cyberrisiko anlass- oder eventbezogen, also wenn sich neue Schaden­szenarien wie die weltweite WannaCry-Attacke entwickeln. Häufig wird auch akteursgebunden beleuchtet, wer Angreifer oder Opfer sein kann. Dadurch begrenzt man sich bei dem Thema häufig zu sehr nur auf die Cyberkriminalität. Um dem Thema Cyberrisiko jedoch gerecht zu werden, müssen auch weitere Ursachen hinzugezogen werden.

Mit einer Kategorisierung kann das Thema ganzheitlich und nachvollziehbar strukturiert werden. Ebenso hilft eine solche Kategorisierung dabei, eine Abgrenzung vorzunehmen, für welche Gefahren Versicherungsschutz über eine etwaige Cyberversicherung besteht und für welche nicht.

Die Ursachen sind dabei die Risiken, während finanzielle bzw. nicht finanzielle Verluste die Wirkungen sind. Cyberrisiken werden demnach in zwei Hauptursachen eingeteilt. Auf der einen Seite sind die nicht kriminellen Ursachen und auf der anderen Seite die kriminellen Ursachen zu nennen. Beide Ursachen können dabei in drei Untergruppen unterteilt werden.

Nicht kriminelle Ursachen

Höhere Gewalt

Häufig hat man bei dem Thema Cyberrisiko nur die kriminellen Ursachen vor Augen. Aber auch höhere Gewalt kann zu einem empfindlichen Datenverlust führen oder zumindest die Verfügbarkeit von Daten einschränken, indem Rechenzentren durch Naturkatastrophen wie beispielsweise Überschwemmungen oder Erdbeben zerstört werden. Ebenso sind Stromausfälle denkbar.

Menschliches Versagen/Fehlverhalten

Als Cyberrisiken sind auch unbeabsichtigtes und menschliches Fehlverhalten denkbar. Hierunter könnte das versehentliche Veröffentlichen von sensiblen Informationen fallen. Möglich sind eine falsche Adressierung, Wahl einer falschen Faxnummer oder das Hochladen sensibler Daten auf einen öffentlichen Bereich der Homepage.

Technisches Versagen

Auch Hardwaredefekte können zu einem herben Datenverlust führen. Neben einem Überhitzen von Rechnern sind Kurzschlüsse in Systemtechnik oder sogenannte Headcrashes von Festplatten denkbare Szenarien.

Kriminelle Ursachen

Hackerangriffe

Hackerangriffe oder Cyberattacken sind in der Regel die Szenarien, die die Presse dominieren. Häufig wird von spektakulären Datendiebstählen auf große Firmen oder von weltweiten Angriffen mit sogenannten Kryptotrojanern berichtet. Opfer kann am Ende aber jeder werden. Ziele, Methoden und auch das Interesse sind vielfältig. Neben dem finanziellen Interesse können Hackerangriffe auch zur Spionage oder Sabotage eingesetzt werden. Mögliche Hackermethoden sind unter anderem: Social Engineering, Trojaner, DoS-Attacken oder Viren.

Physischer Angriff

Die Zielsetzung eines physischen Angriffs ist ähnlich dem eines Hacker­angriffs. Dabei wird nicht auf die Tools eines Hackerangriffs zurückgegriffen, sondern durch das physische Eindringen in Unternehmensgebäude das Ziel erreicht. Häufig sind es Mitarbeiter, die vertrauliche Informationen stehlen, da sie bereits den notwendigen Zugang zu den Daten besitzen.

Erpressung

Obwohl die Erpressung aufgrund der eingesetzten Methoden auch als Hacker­angriff gewertet werden könnte, ergibt eine Differenzierung Sinn. Erpressungsfälle durch Kryptotrojaner sind eines der häufigsten Schadenszenarien für kleinere und mittelständische Unternehmen. Außerdem sind auch Erpressungsfälle denkbar, bei denen sensible Daten gestohlen wurden und ein Lösegeld gefordert wird, damit sie nicht veröffentlicht oder weiterverkauft werden.

Ihre Cyberversicherung sollte zumindet folgende Schäden abdecken:

Cyber-Kosten:

  • Soforthilfe und Forensik-Kosten (Kosten der Ursachenermittlung, Benachrichtigungskosten und Callcenter-Leistung)
  • Krisenkommunikation / PR-Maßnahmen
  • Systemverbesserungen nach einer Cyber-Attacke
  • Aufwendungen vor Eintritt des Versicherungsfalls

Cyber-Drittschäden (Haftpflicht):

  • Befriedigung oder Abwehr von Ansprüchen Dritter
  • Rechtswidrige elektronische Kommunikation
  • Ansprüche der E-Payment-Serviceprovider
  • Vertragsstrafe wegen der Verletzung von Geheimhaltungspflichten und Datenschutzvereinbarungen
  • Vertragliche Schadenersatzansprüche
  • Vertragliche Haftpflicht bei Datenverarbeitung durch Dritte
  • Rechtsverteidigungskosten

Cyber-Eigenschäden:

  • Betriebsunterbrechung
  • Betriebsunterbrechung durch Ausfall von Dienstleister (optional)
  • Mehrkosten
  • Wiederherstellung von Daten (auch Entfernen der Schadsoftware)
  • Cyber-Diebstahl: elektronischer Zahlungsverkehr, fehlerhafter Versand von Waren, Telefon-Mehrkosten/erhöhte Nutzungsentgelte
  • Cyber-Erpressung
  • Entschädigung mit Strafcharakter/Bußgeld
  • Ersatz-IT-Hardware
  • Cyber-Betrug