Was ist das eigentlich? Cyberrisiken verständlich erklärt

Es wird viel über Cyberrisiken gesprochen. Oftmals fehlt aber das grundsätzliche Verständnis, was Cyberrisiken überhaupt sind. Ohne diese zu verstehen, lässt sich aber auch kein Versicherungsschutz gestalten.

Beinahe alle Aktivitäten des täglichen Lebens können heute über das Internet abgewickelt werden. Online-Shopping und Online-Banking sind im Alltag angekommen. Diese Entwicklung trifft längst nicht nur auf Privatleute, sondern auch auf Firmen zu. Das Schlagwort Industrie 4.0 verheißt bereits eine zunehmende Vernetzung diverser geschäftlicher Vorgänge über das Internet.

Anbieter von Cyberversicherungen für kleinere und mittelständische Unternehmen (KMU) haben Versicherungen die Erfahrung gemacht, dass trotz dieser eindeutigen Entwicklung Cyberrisiken immer noch unterschätzt werden, da sie als etwas Abstraktes wahrgenommen werden. Für KMU kann dies ein gefährlicher Trugschluss sein, da gerade hier Cyberattacken existenzbedrohende Ausmaße annehmen können. So wird noch häufig gefragt, was Cyberrisiken eigentlich sind. Diese Frage ist mehr als verständlich, denn ohne (Cyber-)Risiken bestünde auch kein Bedarf für eine (Cyber-)Versicherung.

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Exam Number : 304-200
Exam Name : LPI Level 3 test 304 Senior Level Linux Certification Virtualization & Hi
Vendor Name : LPI
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304-200 test Format | 304-200 Course Contents | 304-200 Course Outline | 304-200 test Syllabus | 304-200 test Objectives






Exam Title :
LPIC-3 Virtualization and High Availability

Exam ID :
304-200

Exam Duration :
90 mins

Questions in test :
60

Passing Score :
500 / 800

Exam Center :
LPI Marketplace

Real Questions :
LPI LPIC-3 Real Questions

VCE practice test :
LPI 304-200 Certification VCE Practice Test







Topic 330: Virtualization





330.1 Virtualization Concepts and Theory


Weight: 8

Description: Candidates should know and understand the general concepts, theory and terminology of Virtualization. This includes Xen, KVM and libvirt terminology.

Key Knowledge Areas:

- Terminology

- Pros and Cons of Virtualization

- Variations of Virtual Machine Monitors

- Migration of Physical to Virtual Machines

- Migration of Virtual Machines between Host systems

- Cloud Computing

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

- Hypervisor

- Hardware Virtual Machine (HVM)

- Paravirtualization (PV)

- Container Virtualization

- Emulation and Simulation

- CPU flags

- /proc/cpuinfo

- Migration (P2V, V2V)

- IaaS, PaaS, SaaS





330.2 Xen


Weight: 9

Description: Candidates should be able to install, configure, maintain, migrate and troubleshoot Xen installations. The focus is on Xen version 4.x.

Key Knowledge Areas:

- Xen architecture, networking and storage

- Xen configuration

- Xen utilities

- Troubleshooting Xen installations

- Basic knowledge of XAPI

- Awareness of XenStore

- Awareness of Xen Boot Parameters

- Awareness of the xm utility

Terms and Utilities:

- Domain0 (Dom0), DomainU (DomU)

- PV-DomU, HVM-DomU

- /etc/xen/

- xl

- xl.cfg

- xl.conf

- xe

- xentop





330.3 KVM


Weight: 9

Description: Candidates should be able to install, configure, maintain, migrate and troubleshoot KVM installations.

Key Knowledge Areas:

- KVM architecture, networking and storage

- KVM configuration

- KVM utilities

- Troubleshooting KVM installations

Terms and Utilities:

- Kernel modules: kvm, kvm-intel and kvm-amd

- /etc/kvm/

- /dev/kvm

- kvm

- KVM monitor

- qemu

- qemu-img





330.4 Other Virtualization Solutions


Weight: 3

Description: Candidates should have some basic knowledge and experience with alternatives to Xen and KVM.

Key Knowledge Areas:

- Basic knowledge of OpenVZ and LXC

- Awareness of other virtualization technologies

- Basic knowledge of virtualization provisioning tools
Terms and Utilities:

- OpenVZ

- VirtualBox

- LXC

- docker

- packer

- vagrant





330.5 Libvirt and Related Tools


Weight: 5

Description: Candidates should have basic knowledge and experience with the libvirt library and commonly available tools.

Key Knowledge Areas:

- libvirt architecture, networking and storage

- Basic technical knowledge of libvirt and virsh

- Awareness of oVirt

Terms and Utilities:

- libvirtd

- /etc/libvirt/

- virsh

- oVirt





330.6 Cloud Management Tools


Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should have basic feature knowledge of commonly available cloud management tools.

Key Knowledge Areas:

- Basic feature knowledge of OpenStack and CloudStack

- Awareness of Eucalyptus and OpenNebula

Terms and Utilities:

- OpenStack

- CloudStack

- Eucalyptus

- OpenNebula






Topic 334: High Availability Cluster Management





334.1 High Availability Concepts and Theory


Weight: 5

Description: Candidates should understand the properties and design approaches of high availability clusters.

Key Knowledge Areas:

- Understand the most important cluster architectures

- Understand recovery and cluster reorganization mechanisms

- Design an appropriate cluster architecture for a given purpose

- Application aspects of high availability

- Operational considerations of high availability

Terms and Utilities:

- Active/Passive Cluster, Active/Active Cluster

- Failover Cluster, Load Balanced Cluster

- Shared-Nothing Cluster, Shared-Disk Cluster

- Cluster resources

- Cluster services

- Quorum

- Fencing

- Split brain

- Redundancy

- Mean Time Before Failure (MTBF)

- Mean Time To Repair (MTTR)

- Service Level Agreement (SLA)

- Disaster Recovery

- Replication

- Session handling





334.2 Load Balanced Clusters


Weight: 6

Description: Candidates should know how to install, configure, maintain and troubleshoot LVS. This includes the configuration and use of keepalived and ldirectord. Candidates should further be able to install, configure, maintain and troubleshoot HAProxy.

Key Knowledge Areas:

- Understanding of LVS / IPVS

- Basic knowledge of VRRP

- Configuration of keepalived

- Configuration of ldirectord

- Backend server network configuration

- Understanding of HAProxy

- Configuration of HAProxy

Terms and Utilities:

- ipvsadm

- syncd

- LVS Forwarding (NAT, Direct Routing, Tunneling, Local Node)

- connection scheduling algorithms

- keepalived configuration file

- ldirectord configuration file

- genhash

- HAProxy configuration file

- load balancing algorithms

- ACLs





334.3 Failover Clusters


Weight: 6

Description: Candidates should have experience in the installation, configuration, maintenance and troubleshooting of a Pacemaker cluster. This includes the use of Corosync. The focus is on Pacemaker 1.1 for Corosync 2.x.

Key Knowledge Areas:

- Pacemaker architecture and components (CIB, CRMd, PEngine, LRMd, DC, STONITHd)

- Pacemaker cluster configuration

- Resource classes (OCF, LSB, Systemd, Upstart, Service, STONITH, Nagios)

- Resource rules and constraints (location, order, colocation)

- Advanced resource features (templates, groups, clone resources, multi-state resources)

- Pacemaker management using pcs

- Pacemaker management using crmsh

- Configuration and Management of corosync in conjunction with Pacemaker

- Awareness of other cluster engines (OpenAIS, Heartbeat, CMAN)

Terms and Utilities:

- pcs

- crm

- crm_mon

- crm_verify

- crm_simulate

- crm_shadow

- crm_resource

- crm_attribute

- crm_node

- crm_standby

- cibadmin

- corosync.conf

- authkey

- corosync-cfgtool

- corosync-cmapctl

- corosync-quorumtool

- stonith_admin





334.4 High Availability in Enterprise Linux Distributions


Weight: 1

Description: Candidates should be aware of how enterprise Linux distributions integrate High Availability technologies.

Key Knowledge Areas:

- Basic knowledge of Red Hat Enterprise Linux High Availability Add-On

- Basic knowledge of SUSE Linux Enterprise High Availability Extension
Terms and Utilities:

- Distribution specific configuration tools

- Integration of cluster engines, load balancers, storage technology, cluster filesystems, etc.






Topic 335: High Availability Cluster Storage





335.1 DRBD / cLVM


Weight: 3

Description: Candidates are expected to have the experience and knowledge to install, configure, maintain and troubleshoot DRBD devices. This includes integration with Pacemaker. DRBD configuration of version 8.4.x is covered. Candidates are further expected to be able to manage LVM configuration within a shared storage cluster.

Key Knowledge Areas:

- Understanding of DRBD resources, states and replication modes

- Configuration of DRBD resources, networking, disks and devices

- Configuration of DRBD automatic recovery and error handling

- Management of DRBD using drbdadm

- Basic knowledge of drbdsetup and drbdmeta

- Integration of DRBD with Pacemaker

- cLVM

- Integration of cLVM with Pacemaker

Terms and Utilities:

- Protocol A, B and C

- Primary, Secondary

- Three-way replication

- drbd kernel module

- drbdadm

- drbdsetup

- drbdmeta

- /etc/drbd.conf

- /proc/drbd

- LVM2

- clvmd

- vgchange, vgs





335.2 Clustered File Systems


Weight: 3

Description: Candidates should know how to install, maintain and troubleshoot installations using GFS2 and OCFS2. This includes integration with Pacemaker as well as awareness of other clustered filesystems available in a Linux environment.

Key Knowledge Areas:

- Understand the principles of cluster file systems

- Create, maintain and troubleshoot GFS2 file systems in a cluster

- Create, maintain and troubleshoot OCFS2 file systems in a cluster

- Integration of GFS2 and OCFS2 with Pacemaker

- Awareness of the O2CB cluster stack

- Awareness of other commonly used clustered file systems

Terms and Utilities:

- Distributed Lock Manager (DLM)

- mkfs.gfs2

- mount.gfs2

- fsck.gfs2

- gfs2_grow

- gfs2_edit

- gfs2_jadd

- mkfs.ocfs2

- mount.ocfs2

- fsck.ocfs2

- tunefs.ocfs2

- mounted.ocfs2

- o2info

- o2image

- CephFS

- GlusterFS

- AFS



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Warum sind Cyberrisiken so schwer greifbar?

Als mehr oder weniger neuartiges Phänomen stellen Cyberrisiken Unternehmen und Versicherer vor besondere Herausforderungen. Nicht nur die neuen Schadenszenarien sind abstrakter oder noch nicht bekannt. Häufig sind immaterielle Werte durch Cyberrisiken in Gefahr. Diese wertvollen Vermögensgegenstände sind schwer bewertbar.

Obwohl die Gefahr durchaus wahrgenommen wird, unterschätzen viele Firmen ihr eigenes Risiko. Dies liegt unter anderem auch an den Veröffentlichungen zu Cyberrisiken. In der Presse finden sich unzählige Berichte von Cyberattacken auf namhafte und große Unternehmen. Den Weg in die Presse finden eben nur die spektakulären Fälle. Die dort genannten Schadenszenarien werden dann für das eigene Unternehmen als unrealistisch eingestuft. Die für die KMU nicht minder gefährlichen Cyber­attacken werden nur selten publiziert.

Aufgrund der fehlenden öffentlichen Meldungen von Sicherheitsvorfällen an Sicherheitsbehörden und wegen der fehlenden Presseberichte fällt es schwer, Fakten und Zahlen zur Risikolage zu erheben. Aber ohne diese Grundlage fällt es schwer, in entsprechende Sicherheitsmaßnahmen zu investieren.

Erklärungsleitfaden anhand eines Ursache-Wirkungs-Modells

Häufig nähert man sich dem Thema Cyberrisiko anlass- oder eventbezogen, also wenn sich neue Schaden­szenarien wie die weltweite WannaCry-Attacke entwickeln. Häufig wird auch akteursgebunden beleuchtet, wer Angreifer oder Opfer sein kann. Dadurch begrenzt man sich bei dem Thema häufig zu sehr nur auf die Cyberkriminalität. Um dem Thema Cyberrisiko jedoch gerecht zu werden, müssen auch weitere Ursachen hinzugezogen werden.

Mit einer Kategorisierung kann das Thema ganzheitlich und nachvollziehbar strukturiert werden. Ebenso hilft eine solche Kategorisierung dabei, eine Abgrenzung vorzunehmen, für welche Gefahren Versicherungsschutz über eine etwaige Cyberversicherung besteht und für welche nicht.

Die Ursachen sind dabei die Risiken, während finanzielle bzw. nicht finanzielle Verluste die Wirkungen sind. Cyberrisiken werden demnach in zwei Hauptursachen eingeteilt. Auf der einen Seite sind die nicht kriminellen Ursachen und auf der anderen Seite die kriminellen Ursachen zu nennen. Beide Ursachen können dabei in drei Untergruppen unterteilt werden.

Nicht kriminelle Ursachen

Höhere Gewalt

Häufig hat man bei dem Thema Cyberrisiko nur die kriminellen Ursachen vor Augen. Aber auch höhere Gewalt kann zu einem empfindlichen Datenverlust führen oder zumindest die Verfügbarkeit von Daten einschränken, indem Rechenzentren durch Naturkatastrophen wie beispielsweise Überschwemmungen oder Erdbeben zerstört werden. Ebenso sind Stromausfälle denkbar.

Menschliches Versagen/Fehlverhalten

Als Cyberrisiken sind auch unbeabsichtigtes und menschliches Fehlverhalten denkbar. Hierunter könnte das versehentliche Veröffentlichen von sensiblen Informationen fallen. Möglich sind eine falsche Adressierung, Wahl einer falschen Faxnummer oder das Hochladen sensibler Daten auf einen öffentlichen Bereich der Homepage.

Technisches Versagen

Auch Hardwaredefekte können zu einem herben Datenverlust führen. Neben einem Überhitzen von Rechnern sind Kurzschlüsse in Systemtechnik oder sogenannte Headcrashes von Festplatten denkbare Szenarien.

Kriminelle Ursachen

Hackerangriffe

Hackerangriffe oder Cyberattacken sind in der Regel die Szenarien, die die Presse dominieren. Häufig wird von spektakulären Datendiebstählen auf große Firmen oder von weltweiten Angriffen mit sogenannten Kryptotrojanern berichtet. Opfer kann am Ende aber jeder werden. Ziele, Methoden und auch das Interesse sind vielfältig. Neben dem finanziellen Interesse können Hackerangriffe auch zur Spionage oder Sabotage eingesetzt werden. Mögliche Hackermethoden sind unter anderem: Social Engineering, Trojaner, DoS-Attacken oder Viren.

Physischer Angriff

Die Zielsetzung eines physischen Angriffs ist ähnlich dem eines Hacker­angriffs. Dabei wird nicht auf die Tools eines Hackerangriffs zurückgegriffen, sondern durch das physische Eindringen in Unternehmensgebäude das Ziel erreicht. Häufig sind es Mitarbeiter, die vertrauliche Informationen stehlen, da sie bereits den notwendigen Zugang zu den Daten besitzen.

Erpressung

Obwohl die Erpressung aufgrund der eingesetzten Methoden auch als Hacker­angriff gewertet werden könnte, ergibt eine Differenzierung Sinn. Erpressungsfälle durch Kryptotrojaner sind eines der häufigsten Schadenszenarien für kleinere und mittelständische Unternehmen. Außerdem sind auch Erpressungsfälle denkbar, bei denen sensible Daten gestohlen wurden und ein Lösegeld gefordert wird, damit sie nicht veröffentlicht oder weiterverkauft werden.

Ihre Cyberversicherung sollte zumindet folgende Schäden abdecken:

Cyber-Kosten:

  • Soforthilfe und Forensik-Kosten (Kosten der Ursachenermittlung, Benachrichtigungskosten und Callcenter-Leistung)
  • Krisenkommunikation / PR-Maßnahmen
  • Systemverbesserungen nach einer Cyber-Attacke
  • Aufwendungen vor Eintritt des Versicherungsfalls

Cyber-Drittschäden (Haftpflicht):

  • Befriedigung oder Abwehr von Ansprüchen Dritter
  • Rechtswidrige elektronische Kommunikation
  • Ansprüche der E-Payment-Serviceprovider
  • Vertragsstrafe wegen der Verletzung von Geheimhaltungspflichten und Datenschutzvereinbarungen
  • Vertragliche Schadenersatzansprüche
  • Vertragliche Haftpflicht bei Datenverarbeitung durch Dritte
  • Rechtsverteidigungskosten

Cyber-Eigenschäden:

  • Betriebsunterbrechung
  • Betriebsunterbrechung durch Ausfall von Dienstleister (optional)
  • Mehrkosten
  • Wiederherstellung von Daten (auch Entfernen der Schadsoftware)
  • Cyber-Diebstahl: elektronischer Zahlungsverkehr, fehlerhafter Versand von Waren, Telefon-Mehrkosten/erhöhte Nutzungsentgelte
  • Cyber-Erpressung
  • Entschädigung mit Strafcharakter/Bußgeld
  • Ersatz-IT-Hardware
  • Cyber-Betrug