Was ist das eigentlich? Cyberrisiken verständlich erklärt

Es wird viel über Cyberrisiken gesprochen. Oftmals fehlt aber das grundsätzliche Verständnis, was Cyberrisiken überhaupt sind. Ohne diese zu verstehen, lässt sich aber auch kein Versicherungsschutz gestalten.

Beinahe alle Aktivitäten des täglichen Lebens können heute über das Internet abgewickelt werden. Online-Shopping und Online-Banking sind im Alltag angekommen. Diese Entwicklung trifft längst nicht nur auf Privatleute, sondern auch auf Firmen zu. Das Schlagwort Industrie 4.0 verheißt bereits eine zunehmende Vernetzung diverser geschäftlicher Vorgänge über das Internet.

Anbieter von Cyberversicherungen für kleinere und mittelständische Unternehmen (KMU) haben Versicherungen die Erfahrung gemacht, dass trotz dieser eindeutigen Entwicklung Cyberrisiken immer noch unterschätzt werden, da sie als etwas Abstraktes wahrgenommen werden. Für KMU kann dies ein gefährlicher Trugschluss sein, da gerade hier Cyberattacken existenzbedrohende Ausmaße annehmen können. So wird noch häufig gefragt, was Cyberrisiken eigentlich sind. Diese Frage ist mehr als verständlich, denn ohne (Cyber-)Risiken bestünde auch kein Bedarf für eine (Cyber-)Versicherung.

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Dental ADA-DAT : Dental Admission Test exam Questions, MCQs and Practice Test

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Exam Number : ADA-DAT
Exam Name : Dental Admission Test
Vendor Name : Dental
Update : Click Here to Check Latest Update
Total MCQs : Check Questions

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ADA-DAT exam Format | ADA-DAT Course Contents | ADA-DAT Course Outline | ADA-DAT exam Syllabus | ADA-DAT exam Objectives


Test Detail:
The Dental Admission Test (DAT) is a standardized exam administered by the American Dental Association (ADA). It is designed to assess the academic readiness and scientific knowledge of prospective dental school applicants. Below is a detailed description of the test, including the number of questions and time allocation, course outline, exam objectives, and exam syllabus.

Number of Questions and Time:
The DAT consists of four sections, and the number of questions and time allocation for each section are as follows:

1. Survey of Natural Sciences:
- Biology: 100 questions (90 minutes)
- General Chemistry: 100 questions (90 minutes)
- Organic Chemistry: 100 questions (90 minutes)

2. Perceptual Ability Test (PAT):
- 90 questions (60 minutes)

3. reading Comprehension Test (RC):
- 50 questions (60 minutes)

4. Quantitative Reasoning (QR):
- 40 questions (45 minutes)

The total testing time for the DAT is approximately 4.5 hours, including optional breaks.

Course Outline:
The DAT covers various subject areas that are essential for success in dental education. The exam content typically includes the following key areas:

1. Survey of Natural Sciences:
- Biology: Cellular and molecular biology, anatomy and physiology, genetics, microbiology, and ecology.
- General Chemistry: Atomic structure, chemical bonding, stoichiometry, thermodynamics, and chemical equilibrium.
- Organic Chemistry: Structure and properties of organic compounds, reaction mechanisms, stereochemistry, and functional groups.

2. Perceptual Ability Test (PAT):
- Keyhole: Visualizing 3D objects from different perspectives.
- Top-Front-End: Analyzing 2D representations of 3D objects.
- Angle Ranking: Evaluating angles and their relationships.
- Hole Punching: Determining the resulting pattern after hole punches in a paper.
- Cube Counting: Counting visible cubes in a 3D structure.
- Pattern Folding: Visualizing 3D objects after folding patterns.

3. reading Comprehension Test (RC):
- reading and understanding passages related to scientific topics.
- Analyzing main ideas, supporting details, and author's tone.
- Making inferences and drawing conclusions from the text.

4. Quantitative Reasoning (QR):
- Arithmetic: Basic mathematical operations, percentages, ratios, and proportions.
- Algebra: Equations, inequalities, exponents, logarithms, and quadratic equations.
- Geometry: Geometric shapes, angles, lines, circles, and triangles.
- Data Analysis: Interpretation of graphs, charts, and tables.

Exam Objectives:
The DAT aims to assess the academic readiness and scientific knowledge necessary for success in dental school. The key objectives of the exam include:

1. Evaluating Scientific Knowledge: Assessing the candidate's understanding of biological and physical sciences relevant to dentistry, including biology, general chemistry, and organic chemistry.

2. Testing Perceptual and Spatial Abilities: Evaluating the candidate's ability to interpret visual information and manipulate 3D objects, which are essential skills in dentistry.

3. Assessing reading Comprehension Skills: Testing the candidate's ability to read and comprehend scientific passages, extract relevant information, and draw accurate conclusions.

4. Evaluating Quantitative Reasoning Skills: Assessing the candidate's mathematical proficiency, including arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and data analysis, which are necessary for problem-solving in dentistry.

Exam Syllabus:
The DAT syllabus covers a broad range of syllabus in biology, general chemistry, organic chemistry, perceptual ability, reading comprehension, and quantitative reasoning. It is designed to reflect the knowledge and skills required for dental school. The specific content and emphasis may

vary slightly across different versions of the exam. It is advisable to consult official DAT study guides and resources provided by the ADA for accurate and up-to-date information on the exam syllabus.

Candidates should also familiarize themselves with the specific requirements and scoring criteria set by dental schools they are applying to. It is recommended to allocate sufficient time for thorough preparation, including reviewing relevant scientific concepts, practicing problem-solving techniques, and developing reading comprehension and perceptual ability skills.

- Cell and Molecular Biology:
- cell metabolism
- photosynthesis
- enzymology
- cellular processes
- membrane transport
- signal transduction
- thermodynamics
- mitosis/meiosis
- cell structure and function
- experimental cell biology
- biomolecules
- integrated relationships

- Diversity of Life:
- viruses
- Archaebacteria
- Eubacteria
- Fungi
- Protista
- Plantae
- Animalia
- integrated relationships

- Structure and Function of Systems:
- integumentary
- skeletal
- muscular
- circulatory
- lymphatic/immune
- digestive
- respiratory
- urinary
- nervous/sensory
- endocrine
- reproductive
- integrated relationships

- Genetics:
- molecular genetics
- human genetics
- classical genetics
- chromosomal genetics
- genetic technology
- developmental mechanisms
- genomics
- gene expression
- epigenetics
- integrated relationships.

- Evolution and Ecology:
- natural selection
- population genetics/speciation
- animal behavior
- ecology
- population
- community
- ecosystem ecology
- integrated relationships

- Stoichiometry and General Concepts:
- percent composition
- empirical formulae
- balancing equations
- moles and molecular formulas
- molar mass
- density
- calculations from balanced equations

- Gases:
- kinetic molecular theory of gases
- Daltons
- Boyles
- Charless
- ideal gas law

- Liquids and Solids:
- intermolecular forces
- phase changes
- vapor pressure
- structures
- polarity
- properties

- Solutions:
- polarity
- properties
- colligative
- noncolligative
- forces
- concentration calculations

- Acids and Bases:
- pH
- strength
- Brønsted-Lowry reactions
- calculations

- Chemical Equilibria:
- molecular
- acid/base
- precipitation
- calculations
- Le Chateliers principle

- Thermodynamics and Thermochemistry:
- laws of thermodynamics
- Hesss law
- spontaneity
- enthalpies and entropies
- heat transfer

- Chemical Kinetics:
- rate laws
- activation energy
- half-life

- Oxidation-Reduction Reactions:
- balancing equations
- determination of oxidation numbers
- electrochemical calculations
- electrochemical concepts
- terminology

- Atomic and Molecular Structure:
- electron configuration
- orbital types
- Lewis-Dot diagrams
- atomic theory
- quantum theory
- molecular geometry
- bond types
- sub-atomic particles

- Periodic Properties:
- representative elements
- transition elements
- periodic trends
- descriptive chemistry

- Nuclear Reactions:
- balancing equations
- binding energy
- decay processes
- particles
- terminology

- Laboratory:
- basic techniques
- equipment
- error analysis
- safety
- data analysis

- Energetics and Structure:
- elimination
- addition
- free radical
- substitution mechanisms
- other mechanisms and reactions

- Chemical and Physical Properties of Molecules:
- Spectroscopy
- 1H NMR
- 13C NMR
- infrared
- multi-spectra
- structure
- polarity
- intermolecular forces
- solubility
- melting/ boiling point
- laboratory theory and techniques
- TLC
- separations

- Stereochemistry (structure evaluation):
- Chirality
- isomer relationships
- conformations

- Nomenclature:
- IUPAC rules
- functional groups in molecules
- Individual Reactions of the Major Functional Groups and Combinations of Reactions to Synthesize Compounds:
- Alkene/alkyne
- aromatic
- substitution/elimination
- aldehyde/ketone
- carboxylic acids and derivatives

- Acid Base Chemistry:
- Ranking acidity/basicity
- structure analysis
- pH/pKa data analysis
- prediction of products and equilibria

- Aromatics and Bonding:
- Concept of aromaticity
- resonance
- atomic/molecular orbitals
- hybridization
- bond angles/lengths

- Mathematical Problems:
- algebra
- equations and expressions
- inequalities
- exponential notation
- absolute value
- ratios and proportions
- graphical analysis
- Data Analysis
- Interpretation
- Sufficiency
- Quantitative Comparison
- Probability and Statistics



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Warum sind Cyberrisiken so schwer greifbar?

Als mehr oder weniger neuartiges Phänomen stellen Cyberrisiken Unternehmen und Versicherer vor besondere Herausforderungen. Nicht nur die neuen Schadenszenarien sind abstrakter oder noch nicht bekannt. Häufig sind immaterielle Werte durch Cyberrisiken in Gefahr. Diese wertvollen Vermögensgegenstände sind schwer bewertbar.

Obwohl die Gefahr durchaus wahrgenommen wird, unterschätzen viele Firmen ihr eigenes Risiko. Dies liegt unter anderem auch an den Veröffentlichungen zu Cyberrisiken. In der Presse finden sich unzählige Berichte von Cyberattacken auf namhafte und große Unternehmen. Den Weg in die Presse finden eben nur die spektakulären Fälle. Die dort genannten Schadenszenarien werden dann für das eigene Unternehmen als unrealistisch eingestuft. Die für die KMU nicht minder gefährlichen Cyber­attacken werden nur selten publiziert.

Aufgrund der fehlenden öffentlichen Meldungen von Sicherheitsvorfällen an Sicherheitsbehörden und wegen der fehlenden Presseberichte fällt es schwer, Fakten und Zahlen zur Risikolage zu erheben. Aber ohne diese Grundlage fällt es schwer, in entsprechende Sicherheitsmaßnahmen zu investieren.

Erklärungsleitfaden anhand eines Ursache-Wirkungs-Modells

Häufig nähert man sich dem Thema Cyberrisiko anlass- oder eventbezogen, also wenn sich neue Schaden­szenarien wie die weltweite WannaCry-Attacke entwickeln. Häufig wird auch akteursgebunden beleuchtet, wer Angreifer oder Opfer sein kann. Dadurch begrenzt man sich bei dem Thema häufig zu sehr nur auf die Cyberkriminalität. Um dem Thema Cyberrisiko jedoch gerecht zu werden, müssen auch weitere Ursachen hinzugezogen werden.

Mit einer Kategorisierung kann das Thema ganzheitlich und nachvollziehbar strukturiert werden. Ebenso hilft eine solche Kategorisierung dabei, eine Abgrenzung vorzunehmen, für welche Gefahren Versicherungsschutz über eine etwaige Cyberversicherung besteht und für welche nicht.

Die Ursachen sind dabei die Risiken, während finanzielle bzw. nicht finanzielle Verluste die Wirkungen sind. Cyberrisiken werden demnach in zwei Hauptursachen eingeteilt. Auf der einen Seite sind die nicht kriminellen Ursachen und auf der anderen Seite die kriminellen Ursachen zu nennen. Beide Ursachen können dabei in drei Untergruppen unterteilt werden.

Nicht kriminelle Ursachen

Höhere Gewalt

Häufig hat man bei dem Thema Cyberrisiko nur die kriminellen Ursachen vor Augen. Aber auch höhere Gewalt kann zu einem empfindlichen Datenverlust führen oder zumindest die Verfügbarkeit von Daten einschränken, indem Rechenzentren durch Naturkatastrophen wie beispielsweise Überschwemmungen oder Erdbeben zerstört werden. Ebenso sind Stromausfälle denkbar.

Menschliches Versagen/Fehlverhalten

Als Cyberrisiken sind auch unbeabsichtigtes und menschliches Fehlverhalten denkbar. Hierunter könnte das versehentliche Veröffentlichen von sensiblen Informationen fallen. Möglich sind eine falsche Adressierung, Wahl einer falschen Faxnummer oder das Hochladen sensibler Daten auf einen öffentlichen Bereich der Homepage.

Technisches Versagen

Auch Hardwaredefekte können zu einem herben Datenverlust führen. Neben einem Überhitzen von Rechnern sind Kurzschlüsse in Systemtechnik oder sogenannte Headcrashes von Festplatten denkbare Szenarien.

Kriminelle Ursachen

Hackerangriffe

Hackerangriffe oder Cyberattacken sind in der Regel die Szenarien, die die Presse dominieren. Häufig wird von spektakulären Datendiebstählen auf große Firmen oder von weltweiten Angriffen mit sogenannten Kryptotrojanern berichtet. Opfer kann am Ende aber jeder werden. Ziele, Methoden und auch das Interesse sind vielfältig. Neben dem finanziellen Interesse können Hackerangriffe auch zur Spionage oder Sabotage eingesetzt werden. Mögliche Hackermethoden sind unter anderem: Social Engineering, Trojaner, DoS-Attacken oder Viren.

Physischer Angriff

Die Zielsetzung eines physischen Angriffs ist ähnlich dem eines Hacker­angriffs. Dabei wird nicht auf die Tools eines Hackerangriffs zurückgegriffen, sondern durch das physische Eindringen in Unternehmensgebäude das Ziel erreicht. Häufig sind es Mitarbeiter, die vertrauliche Informationen stehlen, da sie bereits den notwendigen Zugang zu den Daten besitzen.

Erpressung

Obwohl die Erpressung aufgrund der eingesetzten Methoden auch als Hacker­angriff gewertet werden könnte, ergibt eine Differenzierung Sinn. Erpressungsfälle durch Kryptotrojaner sind eines der häufigsten Schadenszenarien für kleinere und mittelständische Unternehmen. Außerdem sind auch Erpressungsfälle denkbar, bei denen sensible Daten gestohlen wurden und ein Lösegeld gefordert wird, damit sie nicht veröffentlicht oder weiterverkauft werden.

Ihre Cyberversicherung sollte zumindet folgende Schäden abdecken:

Cyber-Kosten:

  • Soforthilfe und Forensik-Kosten (Kosten der Ursachenermittlung, Benachrichtigungskosten und Callcenter-Leistung)
  • Krisenkommunikation / PR-Maßnahmen
  • Systemverbesserungen nach einer Cyber-Attacke
  • Aufwendungen vor Eintritt des Versicherungsfalls

Cyber-Drittschäden (Haftpflicht):

  • Befriedigung oder Abwehr von Ansprüchen Dritter
  • Rechtswidrige elektronische Kommunikation
  • Ansprüche der E-Payment-Serviceprovider
  • Vertragsstrafe wegen der Verletzung von Geheimhaltungspflichten und Datenschutzvereinbarungen
  • Vertragliche Schadenersatzansprüche
  • Vertragliche Haftpflicht bei Datenverarbeitung durch Dritte
  • Rechtsverteidigungskosten

Cyber-Eigenschäden:

  • Betriebsunterbrechung
  • Betriebsunterbrechung durch Ausfall von Dienstleister (optional)
  • Mehrkosten
  • Wiederherstellung von Daten (auch Entfernen der Schadsoftware)
  • Cyber-Diebstahl: elektronischer Zahlungsverkehr, fehlerhafter Versand von Waren, Telefon-Mehrkosten/erhöhte Nutzungsentgelte
  • Cyber-Erpressung
  • Entschädigung mit Strafcharakter/Bußgeld
  • Ersatz-IT-Hardware
  • Cyber-Betrug