Was ist das eigentlich? Cyberrisiken verständlich erklärt

Es wird viel über Cyberrisiken gesprochen. Oftmals fehlt aber das grundsätzliche Verständnis, was Cyberrisiken überhaupt sind. Ohne diese zu verstehen, lässt sich aber auch kein Versicherungsschutz gestalten.

Beinahe alle Aktivitäten des täglichen Lebens können heute über das Internet abgewickelt werden. Online-Shopping und Online-Banking sind im Alltag angekommen. Diese Entwicklung trifft längst nicht nur auf Privatleute, sondern auch auf Firmen zu. Das Schlagwort Industrie 4.0 verheißt bereits eine zunehmende Vernetzung diverser geschäftlicher Vorgänge über das Internet.

Anbieter von Cyberversicherungen für kleinere und mittelständische Unternehmen (KMU) haben Versicherungen die Erfahrung gemacht, dass trotz dieser eindeutigen Entwicklung Cyberrisiken immer noch unterschätzt werden, da sie als etwas Abstraktes wahrgenommen werden. Für KMU kann dies ein gefährlicher Trugschluss sein, da gerade hier Cyberattacken existenzbedrohende Ausmaße annehmen können. So wird noch häufig gefragt, was Cyberrisiken eigentlich sind. Diese Frage ist mehr als verständlich, denn ohne (Cyber-)Risiken bestünde auch kein Bedarf für eine (Cyber-)Versicherung.

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iSQI CTFL_Foundation : ISTQB Certified Tester Foundation Level ACTUAL EXAM QUESTIONS

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CTFL_Foundation test Format | CTFL_Foundation Course Contents | CTFL_Foundation Course Outline | CTFL_Foundation test Syllabus | CTFL_Foundation test Objectives

ISTQB has recently launched CTFL 2018 V3.1 with minor changes. You can find all the info needed in the get area.

The Foundation Level Syllabus forms the basis for the International Software Testing Qualification at the Foundation Level.

The International Software Testing Qualifications Board® (ISTQB®) provides it to the national examination bodies for them to accredit the training providers and to derive examination questions in their local language.

Training providers will produce courseware and determine appropriate teaching methods for accreditation, and the syllabus will help candidates in their preparation for the examination.

The Certified Tester Foundation Level in Software Testing

The Foundation Level qualification is aimed at anyone involved in software testing. This includes people in roles such as testers, test analysts, test engineers, test consultants, test managers, user acceptance testers and software developers.

This Foundation Level qualification is also appropriate for anyone who wants a basic understanding of software testing, such as project managers, quality managers, software development managers, business analysts, IT directors and management consultants. Holders of the Foundation Certificate will be able to go on to a higher level software testing qualification.

Fundamentals of Testing

Learning Objectives for Fundamentals of Testing:

- What is Testing=>

- Identify typical objectives of testing

- Differentiate testing from debugging

- Why is Testing Necessary=>

- provide examples of why testing is necessary

- Describe the relationship between testing and quality assurance and provide examples of how testing contributes to higher quality

- Distinguish between error, defect, and failure

- Distinguish between the root cause of a defect and its effects

- Seven Testing Principles

- Explain the seven testing principles

- Test Process

- Explain the impact of context on the test process

- Describe the test activities and respective tasks within the test process

- Differentiate the work products that support the test process

- Explain the value of maintaining traceability between the test basis and test work products

- The Psychology of Testing

- Identify the psychological factors that influence the success of testing

- Explain the difference between the mindset required for test activities and the mindset required for development activities

Keywords

coverage, debugging, defect, error, failure, quality, quality assurance, root cause, test analysis, test basis,
test case, test completion, test condition, test control, test data, test design, test execution,
test implementation, test monitoring, test object, test objective, test oracle, test planning, test procedure,
test process, test suite, testing, testware, traceability, validation, verification

Testing Throughout the Software Development Lifecycle

Learning Objectives for Testing Throughout the Software Development Lifecycle

- Software Development Lifecycle Models

- Explain the relationships between software development activities and test activities in the software development lifecycle

- Identify reasons why software development lifecycle models must be adapted to the context of project and product characteristics

- Test Levels

- Compare the different test levels from the perspective of objectives, test basis, test objects, typical defects and failures, and approaches and responsibilities

- Test Types

- Compare functional, non-functional, and white-box testing

- Recognize that functional, non-functional, and white-box tests occur at any test level

- Compare the purposes of confirmation testing and regression testing

- Maintenance Testing

- Summarize triggers for maintenance testing

- Describe the role of impact analysis in maintenance testing

Keywords

acceptance testing, alpha testing, beta testing, change-related testing, commercial off-the-shelf (COTS),
component integration testing, component testing, confirmation testing, contractual acceptance testing,
functional testing, impact analysis, integration testing, maintenance testing, non-functional testing,
operational acceptance testing, regression testing, regulatory acceptance testing, sequential development
model, system integration testing, system testing, test basis, test case, test environment, test level, test
object, test objective, test type, user acceptance testing, white-box testing

Static Testing

Learning Objectives for Static Testing

- Static Testing Basics

- Recognize types of software work product that can be examined by the different static testing techniques

- Use examples to describe the value of static testing

- Explain the difference between static and dynamic techniques, considering objectives, types of defects to be identified, and the role of these techniques within the software lifecycle

- Review Process

- Summarize the activities of the work product review process

- Recognize the different roles and responsibilities in a formal review

- Explain the differences between different review types: informal review, walkthrough, technical review, and inspection

- Apply a review technique to a work product to find defects

- Explain the factors that contribute to a successful review

Keywords

ad hoc review, checklist-based review, dynamic testing, formal review, informal review, inspection,
perspective-based reading, review, role-based review, scenario-based review, static analysis, static
testing, technical review, walkthrough

Test Techniques

Learning Objectives for Test Techniques

- Categories of Test Techniques

- Explain the characteristics, commonalities, and differences between black-box test techniques, white-box test techniques, and experience-based test techniques

- Black-box Test Techniques

- Apply equivalence partitioning to derive test cases from given requirements

- Apply boundary value analysis to derive test cases from given requirements

- Apply decision table testing to derive test cases from given requirements

- Apply state transition testing to derive test cases from given requirements

- Explain how to derive test cases from a use case

- White-box Test Techniques

- Explain statement coverage

- Explain decision coverage

- Explain the value of statement and decision coverage

- Experience-based Test Techniques

- Explain error guessing

- Explain exploratory testing

- Explain checklist-based testing

Keywords

black-box test technique, boundary value analysis, checklist-based testing, coverage, decision coverage,
decision table testing, error guessing, equivalence partitioning, experience-based test technique,
exploratory testing, state transition testing, statement coverage, test technique, use case testing, whitebox test technique

Test Management

Learning Objectives for Test Management

- Test Organization

- Explain the benefits and drawbacks of independent testing

- Identify the tasks of a test manager and tester

- Test Planning and Estimation

- Summarize the purpose and content of a test plan

- Differentiate between various test strategies

- provide examples of potential entry and exit criteria

- Apply knowledge of prioritization, and technical and logical dependencies, to schedule test execution for a given set of test cases

- Identify factors that influence the effort related to testing

- Explain the difference between two estimation techniques: the metrics-based technique and the expert-based technique

- Test Monitoring and Control

- Recall metrics used for testing

- Summarize the purposes, contents, and audiences for test reports

- Configuration Management

- Summarize how configuration management supports testing

- Risks and Testing

- Define risk level by using likelihood and impact

- Distinguish between project and product risks

- Describe, by using examples, how product risk analysis may influence the thoroughness and scope of testing

- ement

- Write a defect report, covering a defect found during testing

Keywords

configuration management, defect management, defect report, entry criteria, exit criteria, product risk,
project risk, risk, risk level, risk-based testing, test approach, test control, test estimation, test manager,
test monitoring, test plan, test planning, test progress report, test strategy, test summary report, tester

Tool Support for Testing

Learning Objectives for Test Tools

- Test tool considerations

- Classify test tools according to their purpose and the test activities they support

- Identify benefits and risks of test automation

- Remember special considerations for test execution and test management tools

- Effective use of tools

- Identify the main principles for selecting a tool

- Recall the objectives for using pilot projects to introduce tools

- Identify the success factors for evaluation, implementation, deployment, and on-going support of test tools in an organization

Keywords

data-driven testing, keyword-driven testing, test automation, test execution tool, test management tool

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Teenage smokers have different brains than non-smoking teens, study suggests

CDC: 1 in 10 young adults are vaping regularly

CDC: 1 in 10 young adults are vaping regularly 02:00

A new study suggests that the brains of teenagers who take up smoking may be different from those of adolescents who don't take up the habit — data that could help treat and prevent nicotine addiction from an early age.

A research team led by the universities of Cambridge and Warwick in Britain and Fudan University in China found that teens who started smoking cigarettes by 14 years of age had significantly less grey matter in a section of the brain's left frontal lobe.

Tuesday's findings, published in the scientific journal Nature Communications, indicate that adolescents with less grey matter on the left frontal lobe have less cognitive function and therefore are more inclined to break rules and develop bad habits such as smoking.

The left frontal lobe is linked to decision-making and rule-breaking. Grey matter is the brain tissue that processes information, and its growth and development peaks for humans in their teenage years.

Notably, researchers found that the right part of the same brain region also had less grey matter in teenage smokers.

The right frontal lobe of the brain is linked to the seeking of sensations and the research team found that the right frontal lobe shrinks for teenagers who smoke regularly -- which may lead to addiction and affect the ways adolescents seek pleasure.

Scientists hope the combined results may help in intervening and preventing teenagers from taking up the bad habit before addiction takes hold.

"Smoking is perhaps the most common addictive behaviour in the world, and a leading cause of adult mortality," said Cambridge University Professor Trevor Robbins, who co-authored the study.

"The initiation of a smoking habit is most likely to occur during adolescence. Any way of detecting an increased chance of this, so they can target interventions, could help save millions of lives," Robbins said in a press release on Tuesday.

Around 1,600 young people try their first cigarette before the age of 18 every day in the United States, and nearly half a million Americans die prematurely each year from smoking or exposure to secondhand smoke, according to the CDC.

Study: Music can help people learn a second language

BUFFALO, N.Y. – A background in music helps speakers learn a tonal language, such as Mandarin, a new University at Buffalo study suggests.

People with musical training — whether instrumental or vocal — are better at imitating pitch than someone without that training. Understanding pitch structure is critical with tonal languages that rely on inflection to communicate meaning.

Unlike English, where the inflection placed on a single word can alter a word’s pitch in ways that convey emphasis or emotion, altering pitch in a tonal language can change a word’s meaning.

“Both a musical background and a Mandarin language background influences the ability to match pitch,” says Chihiro Honda, a graduate student of psychology in the UB College of Arts and Sciences, and first author of the paper published in the Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. “These findings imply that teachers might want to introduce music as part of their instruction for those trying to acquire a second language.”

This research also speaks to the long-standing debate about whether their brains have separate networks for language and music, according to Peter Pfordresher, PhD, a UB professor of psychology and one of the paper’s co-authors.

“This paper isn’t the final say on that debate, but they seem to have the same network at work for both behaviors,” he says. “We might rely on different features of that network depending on whether we’re in a language or a music situation. If you’re attuned to paying attention to pitch through learning a tonal language or through music, that training is going to help you in either situation.”

The research team recruited 127 participants for the study: Mandarin and English speakers, both with and without a background in music. The researchers created 96 short sentences in each language phrased as both a statement and a question — “The children can’t sleep,” for instance.

The authors then used computer software to create pitch patterns based on the spoken sentences, and then composed short melodies based on the pitch of each syllable. Participants listened to and then vocally reproduced these synthetic pitch patterns and melodies, but never heard the original spoken sentences.

After collecting data, the researchers calculated the differences between target pitch and what participants produced.

“Musicians were more accurate in matching absolute pitch across syllables and musical notes than non-musicians,” says Honda. “Mandarin speakers were more accurate at imitating changes within and across pitch patterns compared to English speakers.

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Warum sind Cyberrisiken so schwer greifbar?

Als mehr oder weniger neuartiges Phänomen stellen Cyberrisiken Unternehmen und Versicherer vor besondere Herausforderungen. Nicht nur die neuen Schadenszenarien sind abstrakter oder noch nicht bekannt. Häufig sind immaterielle Werte durch Cyberrisiken in Gefahr. Diese wertvollen Vermögensgegenstände sind schwer bewertbar.

Obwohl die Gefahr durchaus wahrgenommen wird, unterschätzen viele Firmen ihr eigenes Risiko. Dies liegt unter anderem auch an den Veröffentlichungen zu Cyberrisiken. In der Presse finden sich unzählige Berichte von Cyberattacken auf namhafte und große Unternehmen. Den Weg in die Presse finden eben nur die spektakulären Fälle. Die dort genannten Schadenszenarien werden dann für das eigene Unternehmen als unrealistisch eingestuft. Die für die KMU nicht minder gefährlichen Cyberattacken werden nur selten publiziert.

Aufgrund der fehlenden öffentlichen Meldungen von Sicherheitsvorfällen an Sicherheitsbehörden und wegen der fehlenden Presseberichte fällt es schwer, Fakten und Zahlen zur Risikolage zu erheben. Aber ohne diese Grundlage fällt es schwer, in entsprechende Sicherheitsmaßnahmen zu investieren.

Erklärungsleitfaden anhand eines Ursache-Wirkungs-Modells

Häufig nähert man sich dem Thema Cyberrisiko anlass- oder eventbezogen, also wenn sich neue Schadenszenarien wie die weltweite WannaCry-Attacke entwickeln. Häufig wird auch akteursgebunden beleuchtet, wer Angreifer oder Opfer sein kann. Dadurch begrenzt man sich bei dem Thema häufig zu sehr nur auf die Cyberkriminalität. Um dem Thema Cyberrisiko jedoch gerecht zu werden, müssen auch weitere Ursachen hinzugezogen werden.

Mit einer Kategorisierung kann das Thema ganzheitlich und nachvollziehbar strukturiert werden. Ebenso hilft eine solche Kategorisierung dabei, eine Abgrenzung vorzunehmen, für welche Gefahren Versicherungsschutz über eine etwaige Cyberversicherung besteht und für welche nicht.

Die Ursachen sind dabei die Risiken, während finanzielle bzw. nicht finanzielle Verluste die Wirkungen sind. Cyberrisiken werden demnach in zwei Hauptursachen eingeteilt. Auf der einen Seite sind die nicht kriminellen Ursachen und auf der anderen Seite die kriminellen Ursachen zu nennen. Beide Ursachen können dabei in drei Untergruppen unterteilt werden.

Nicht kriminelle Ursachen

Höhere Gewalt

Häufig hat man bei dem Thema Cyberrisiko nur die kriminellen Ursachen vor Augen. Aber auch höhere Gewalt kann zu einem empfindlichen Datenverlust führen oder zumindest die Verfügbarkeit von Daten einschränken, indem Rechenzentren durch Naturkatastrophen wie beispielsweise Überschwemmungen oder Erdbeben zerstört werden. Ebenso sind Stromausfälle denkbar.

Menschliches Versagen/Fehlverhalten

Als Cyberrisiken sind auch unbeabsichtigtes und menschliches Fehlverhalten denkbar. Hierunter könnte das versehentliche Veröffentlichen von sensiblen Informationen fallen. Möglich sind eine falsche Adressierung, Wahl einer falschen Faxnummer oder das Hochladen sensibler Daten auf einen öffentlichen Bereich der Homepage.

Technisches Versagen

Auch Hardwaredefekte können zu einem herben Datenverlust führen. Neben einem Überhitzen von Rechnern sind Kurzschlüsse in Systemtechnik oder sogenannte Headcrashes von Festplatten denkbare Szenarien.

Kriminelle Ursachen

Hackerangriffe

Hackerangriffe oder Cyberattacken sind in der Regel die Szenarien, die die Presse dominieren. Häufig wird von spektakulären Datendiebstählen auf große Firmen oder von weltweiten Angriffen mit sogenannten Kryptotrojanern berichtet. Opfer kann am Ende aber jeder werden. Ziele, Methoden und auch das Interesse sind vielfältig. Neben dem finanziellen Interesse können Hackerangriffe auch zur Spionage oder Sabotage eingesetzt werden. Mögliche Hackermethoden sind unter anderem: Social Engineering, Trojaner, DoS-Attacken oder Viren.

Physischer Angriff

Die Zielsetzung eines physischen Angriffs ist ähnlich dem eines Hackerangriffs. Dabei wird nicht auf die Tools eines Hackerangriffs zurückgegriffen, sondern durch das physische Eindringen in Unternehmensgebäude das Ziel erreicht. Häufig sind es Mitarbeiter, die vertrauliche Informationen stehlen, da sie bereits den notwendigen Zugang zu den Daten besitzen.

Erpressung

Obwohl die Erpressung aufgrund der eingesetzten Methoden auch als Hackerangriff gewertet werden könnte, ergibt eine Differenzierung Sinn. Erpressungsfälle durch Kryptotrojaner sind eines der häufigsten Schadenszenarien für kleinere und mittelständische Unternehmen. Außerdem sind auch Erpressungsfälle denkbar, bei denen sensible Daten gestohlen wurden und ein Lösegeld gefordert wird, damit sie nicht veröffentlicht oder weiterverkauft werden.

Ihre Cyberversicherung sollte zumindet folgende Schäden abdecken:

Cyber-Kosten:

Soforthilfe und Forensik-Kosten (Kosten der Ursachenermittlung, Benachrichtigungskosten und Callcenter-Leistung)
Krisenkommunikation / PR-Maßnahmen
Systemverbesserungen nach einer Cyber-Attacke
Aufwendungen vor Eintritt des Versicherungsfalls

Cyber-Drittschäden (Haftpflicht):

Befriedigung oder Abwehr von Ansprüchen Dritter
Rechtswidrige elektronische Kommunikation
Ansprüche der E-Payment-Serviceprovider
Vertragsstrafe wegen der Verletzung von Geheimhaltungspflichten und Datenschutzvereinbarungen
Vertragliche Schadenersatzansprüche
Vertragliche Haftpflicht bei Datenverarbeitung durch Dritte
Rechtsverteidigungskosten

Cyber-Eigenschäden:

Betriebsunterbrechung
Betriebsunterbrechung durch Ausfall von Dienstleister (optional)
Mehrkosten
Wiederherstellung von Daten (auch Entfernen der Schadsoftware)
Cyber-Diebstahl: elektronischer Zahlungsverkehr, fehlerhafter Versand von Waren, Telefon-Mehrkosten/erhöhte Nutzungsentgelte
Cyber-Erpressung
Entschädigung mit Strafcharakter/Bußgeld
Ersatz-IT-Hardware
Cyber-Betrug