Was ist das eigentlich? Cyberrisiken verständlich erklärt

Es wird viel über Cyberrisiken gesprochen. Oftmals fehlt aber das grundsätzliche Verständnis, was Cyberrisiken überhaupt sind. Ohne diese zu verstehen, lässt sich aber auch kein Versicherungsschutz gestalten.

Beinahe alle Aktivitäten des täglichen Lebens können heute über das Internet abgewickelt werden. Online-Shopping und Online-Banking sind im Alltag angekommen. Diese Entwicklung trifft längst nicht nur auf Privatleute, sondern auch auf Firmen zu. Das Schlagwort Industrie 4.0 verheißt bereits eine zunehmende Vernetzung diverser geschäftlicher Vorgänge über das Internet.

Anbieter von Cyberversicherungen für kleinere und mittelständische Unternehmen (KMU) haben Versicherungen die Erfahrung gemacht, dass trotz dieser eindeutigen Entwicklung Cyberrisiken immer noch unterschätzt werden, da sie als etwas Abstraktes wahrgenommen werden. Für KMU kann dies ein gefährlicher Trugschluss sein, da gerade hier Cyberattacken existenzbedrohende Ausmaße annehmen können. So wird noch häufig gefragt, was Cyberrisiken eigentlich sind. Diese Frage ist mehr als verständlich, denn ohne (Cyber-)Risiken bestünde auch kein Bedarf für eine (Cyber-)Versicherung.

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Exam Number : CeMAP-3
Exam Name : Module 3: Assessment of Mortgage Advice Knowledge (ASSM)
Vendor Name : LIBF
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Total MCQs : Check Questions

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CeMAP-3 exam Format | CeMAP-3 Course Contents | CeMAP-3 Course Outline | CeMAP-3 exam Syllabus | CeMAP-3 exam Objectives


Exam Code: CeMAP Module 3
Exam Name: Assessment of Mortgage Advice Knowledge (ASSM)
6 case studies, each followed by 10 linked multiple‐choice questions → total 60 MCQs.
Duration: 2 hours.
Pass mark: 70% (i.e. 42 out of 60 correct)

1. Regulatory and Ethical Framework in Mortgage Advice
- FCA (Financial Conduct Authority): The UK regulator overseeing mortgage advice; enforces principles like Principle 6 (treating customers fairly).
- MCOB (Mortgage Conduct of Business rules): FCA handbook rules governing mortgage sales, including MCOB 4 (suitability) and MCOB 11 (arrears handling).
- Treating Customers Fairly (TCF): FCA outcome-based principle ensuring fair treatment throughout the customer lifecycle.
- KYC (Know Your Customer): Initial fact-finding to understand client needs, objectives, and risk profile.
- Vulnerable Customer: Clients with limited capacity (e.g., due to mental health or age), requiring enhanced protections under FG21/1 guidance.
- Money Laundering Regulations (MLR): Requirements under POCA (Proceeds of Crime Act) for customer due diligence (CDD) and reporting suspicious activities (SARs).

2. Mortgage Products and Features
- Repayment Mortgage: Loan repaid via monthly capital and interest payments over the term.
- Interest-Only Mortgage: Monthly payments cover interest only; capital repaid at end (e.g., via endowment or ISA).
- LTV (Loan-to-Value): Ratio of loan amount to property value (e.g., 90% LTV means 10% deposit required).
- Buy-to-Let (BTL): Mortgage for investment properties; higher rates and stress-tested affordability.
- Equity Release: Products like Lifetime Mortgages (interest rolls up) or Home Reversion Plans for older borrowers.
- Portable Mortgage: Product that can transfer to a new property without full reapplication.
- Offset Mortgage: Linked savings account reduces interest calculation on the mortgage balance.

3. Affordability and Lending Criteria Assessment
- Affordability Assessment: Lender evaluation of borrower's ability to repay, per MCOB 11.6, including income multiples (e.g., 4.5x joint income).
- Stress Testing: Simulating higher interest rates (e.g., +3% buffer) to ensure sustainability.
- Income Multiples: Maximum loan as a multiple of income (e.g., 5x for high earners under manual underwriting).
- Adverse Credit: Negative marks on credit file (e.g., CCJs - County Court Judgments); impacts lending via specialist lenders.
- DTI (Debt-to-Income): Ratio of total debt payments to gross income; used in affordability calculations.
- Manual Underwriting: Lender discretion for complex cases (e.g., non-standard income), vs. automated systems.

4. The Mortgage Application Process and Legal Aspects
- AIP (Agreement in Principle): Non-binding pre-approval indicating borrowing potential.
- DIP (Decision in Principle): More detailed lender exam post-fact-find.
- Conveyancing: Legal transfer of property ownership; involves searches (e.g., local authority, environmental).
- Title Deeds: Legal documents proving property ownership; registered with HM Land Registry.
- Leasehold vs. Freehold: Leasehold (time-limited ownership) vs. Freehold (full ownership); impacts resale and service charges.
- Stamp Duty Land Tax (SDLT): Tax on property purchases over thresholds (e.g., £250,000 for first-time buyers).
- RICS Valuation: Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors home report assessing property worth and condition.

5. Specialist Mortgage Advice and Client Types
- Right to Buy (RTB): Scheme allowing council tenants to buy at discount; mortgages capped at 90% LTV.
- Shared Ownership: Buying a share (e.g., 25-75%) of a property; staircasing allows increasing ownership.
- Expat Mortgage: For non-UK residents; often requires overseas income verification and higher LTV restrictions.
- Help to Buy ISA: Government scheme offering 25% bonus on savings up to £12,000 for first-time buyers.
- Non-Conforming Borrower: Clients outside standard criteria (e.g., self-employed with irregular income).
- Guarantor Mortgage: Third-party (e.g., parent) guarantees payments for younger buyers.

6. Arrears, Post-Completion, and Remediation Strategies
- Arrears Management: Process per MCOB 13; includes payment holidays or term extensions.
- Forbearance: Temporary lender concessions (e.g., interest-only switch) to avoid default.
- IVAs (Individual Voluntary Arrangements): Debt solution binding creditors to a repayment plan.
- Repossession: Lender action as last resort; voluntary (peaceful re-entry) vs. court-ordered.
- Payment Plan: Customized schedule to clear arrears over time, based on disposable income.
- Pre-Action Protocol: Steps before court proceedings, requiring lender-client negotiation.

7. Economic and Market Influences on Advice
- Base Rate: Bank of England rate influencing SVR (Standard Variable Rate) mortgages.
- SVR (Standard Variable Rate): Lender's default rate, often higher than fixed deals.
- Economic Cycle: Phases (e.g., boom, recession) impacting house prices and lending criteria.
- FPC (Financial Policy Committee): Bank of England body setting macro-prudential tools like LTV caps.
- Stress Rate: Hypothetical rate (e.g., 7%) used in affordability checks.
- Buyer's Market vs. Seller's Market: Low supply/high demand driving up prices and competition.



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Warum sind Cyberrisiken so schwer greifbar?

Als mehr oder weniger neuartiges Phänomen stellen Cyberrisiken Unternehmen und Versicherer vor besondere Herausforderungen. Nicht nur die neuen Schadenszenarien sind abstrakter oder noch nicht bekannt. Häufig sind immaterielle Werte durch Cyberrisiken in Gefahr. Diese wertvollen Vermögensgegenstände sind schwer bewertbar.

Obwohl die Gefahr durchaus wahrgenommen wird, unterschätzen viele Firmen ihr eigenes Risiko. Dies liegt unter anderem auch an den Veröffentlichungen zu Cyberrisiken. In der Presse finden sich unzählige Berichte von Cyberattacken auf namhafte und große Unternehmen. Den Weg in die Presse finden eben nur die spektakulären Fälle. Die dort genannten Schadenszenarien werden dann für das eigene Unternehmen als unrealistisch eingestuft. Die für die KMU nicht minder gefährlichen Cyber­attacken werden nur selten publiziert.

Aufgrund der fehlenden öffentlichen Meldungen von Sicherheitsvorfällen an Sicherheitsbehörden und wegen der fehlenden Presseberichte fällt es schwer, Fakten und Zahlen zur Risikolage zu erheben. Aber ohne diese Grundlage fällt es schwer, in entsprechende Sicherheitsmaßnahmen zu investieren.

Erklärungsleitfaden anhand eines Ursache-Wirkungs-Modells

Häufig nähert man sich dem Thema Cyberrisiko anlass- oder eventbezogen, also wenn sich neue Schaden­szenarien wie die weltweite WannaCry-Attacke entwickeln. Häufig wird auch akteursgebunden beleuchtet, wer Angreifer oder Opfer sein kann. Dadurch begrenzt man sich bei dem Thema häufig zu sehr nur auf die Cyberkriminalität. Um dem Thema Cyberrisiko jedoch gerecht zu werden, müssen auch weitere Ursachen hinzugezogen werden.

Mit einer Kategorisierung kann das Thema ganzheitlich und nachvollziehbar strukturiert werden. Ebenso hilft eine solche Kategorisierung dabei, eine Abgrenzung vorzunehmen, für welche Gefahren Versicherungsschutz über eine etwaige Cyberversicherung besteht und für welche nicht.

Die Ursachen sind dabei die Risiken, während finanzielle bzw. nicht finanzielle Verluste die Wirkungen sind. Cyberrisiken werden demnach in zwei Hauptursachen eingeteilt. Auf der einen Seite sind die nicht kriminellen Ursachen und auf der anderen Seite die kriminellen Ursachen zu nennen. Beide Ursachen können dabei in drei Untergruppen unterteilt werden.

Nicht kriminelle Ursachen

Höhere Gewalt

Häufig hat man bei dem Thema Cyberrisiko nur die kriminellen Ursachen vor Augen. Aber auch höhere Gewalt kann zu einem empfindlichen Datenverlust führen oder zumindest die Verfügbarkeit von Daten einschränken, indem Rechenzentren durch Naturkatastrophen wie beispielsweise Überschwemmungen oder Erdbeben zerstört werden. Ebenso sind Stromausfälle denkbar.

Menschliches Versagen/Fehlverhalten

Als Cyberrisiken sind auch unbeabsichtigtes und menschliches Fehlverhalten denkbar. Hierunter könnte das versehentliche Veröffentlichen von sensiblen Informationen fallen. Möglich sind eine falsche Adressierung, Wahl einer falschen Faxnummer oder das Hochladen sensibler Daten auf einen öffentlichen Bereich der Homepage.

Technisches Versagen

Auch Hardwaredefekte können zu einem herben Datenverlust führen. Neben einem Überhitzen von Rechnern sind Kurzschlüsse in Systemtechnik oder sogenannte Headcrashes von Festplatten denkbare Szenarien.

Kriminelle Ursachen

Hackerangriffe

Hackerangriffe oder Cyberattacken sind in der Regel die Szenarien, die die Presse dominieren. Häufig wird von spektakulären Datendiebstählen auf große Firmen oder von weltweiten Angriffen mit sogenannten Kryptotrojanern berichtet. Opfer kann am Ende aber jeder werden. Ziele, Methoden und auch das Interesse sind vielfältig. Neben dem finanziellen Interesse können Hackerangriffe auch zur Spionage oder Sabotage eingesetzt werden. Mögliche Hackermethoden sind unter anderem: Social Engineering, Trojaner, DoS-Attacken oder Viren.

Physischer Angriff

Die Zielsetzung eines physischen Angriffs ist ähnlich dem eines Hacker­angriffs. Dabei wird nicht auf die Tools eines Hackerangriffs zurückgegriffen, sondern durch das physische Eindringen in Unternehmensgebäude das Ziel erreicht. Häufig sind es Mitarbeiter, die vertrauliche Informationen stehlen, da sie bereits den notwendigen Zugang zu den Daten besitzen.

Erpressung

Obwohl die Erpressung aufgrund der eingesetzten Methoden auch als Hacker­angriff gewertet werden könnte, ergibt eine Differenzierung Sinn. Erpressungsfälle durch Kryptotrojaner sind eines der häufigsten Schadenszenarien für kleinere und mittelständische Unternehmen. Außerdem sind auch Erpressungsfälle denkbar, bei denen sensible Daten gestohlen wurden und ein Lösegeld gefordert wird, damit sie nicht veröffentlicht oder weiterverkauft werden.

Ihre Cyberversicherung sollte zumindet folgende Schäden abdecken:

Cyber-Kosten:

  • Soforthilfe und Forensik-Kosten (Kosten der Ursachenermittlung, Benachrichtigungskosten und Callcenter-Leistung)
  • Krisenkommunikation / PR-Maßnahmen
  • Systemverbesserungen nach einer Cyber-Attacke
  • Aufwendungen vor Eintritt des Versicherungsfalls

Cyber-Drittschäden (Haftpflicht):

  • Befriedigung oder Abwehr von Ansprüchen Dritter
  • Rechtswidrige elektronische Kommunikation
  • Ansprüche der E-Payment-Serviceprovider
  • Vertragsstrafe wegen der Verletzung von Geheimhaltungspflichten und Datenschutzvereinbarungen
  • Vertragliche Schadenersatzansprüche
  • Vertragliche Haftpflicht bei Datenverarbeitung durch Dritte
  • Rechtsverteidigungskosten

Cyber-Eigenschäden:

  • Betriebsunterbrechung
  • Betriebsunterbrechung durch Ausfall von Dienstleister (optional)
  • Mehrkosten
  • Wiederherstellung von Daten (auch Entfernen der Schadsoftware)
  • Cyber-Diebstahl: elektronischer Zahlungsverkehr, fehlerhafter Versand von Waren, Telefon-Mehrkosten/erhöhte Nutzungsentgelte
  • Cyber-Erpressung
  • Entschädigung mit Strafcharakter/Bußgeld
  • Ersatz-IT-Hardware
  • Cyber-Betrug