Was ist das eigentlich? Cyberrisiken verständlich erklärt

Es wird viel über Cyberrisiken gesprochen. Oftmals fehlt aber das grundsätzliche Verständnis, was Cyberrisiken überhaupt sind. Ohne diese zu verstehen, lässt sich aber auch kein Versicherungsschutz gestalten.

Beinahe alle Aktivitäten des täglichen Lebens können heute über das Internet abgewickelt werden. Online-Shopping und Online-Banking sind im Alltag angekommen. Diese Entwicklung trifft längst nicht nur auf Privatleute, sondern auch auf Firmen zu. Das Schlagwort Industrie 4.0 verheißt bereits eine zunehmende Vernetzung diverser geschäftlicher Vorgänge über das Internet.

Anbieter von Cyberversicherungen für kleinere und mittelständische Unternehmen (KMU) haben Versicherungen die Erfahrung gemacht, dass trotz dieser eindeutigen Entwicklung Cyberrisiken immer noch unterschätzt werden, da sie als etwas Abstraktes wahrgenommen werden. Für KMU kann dies ein gefährlicher Trugschluss sein, da gerade hier Cyberattacken existenzbedrohende Ausmaße annehmen können. So wird noch häufig gefragt, was Cyberrisiken eigentlich sind. Diese Frage ist mehr als verständlich, denn ohne (Cyber-)Risiken bestünde auch kein Bedarf für eine (Cyber-)Versicherung.

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ACT test Format | ACT Course Contents | ACT Course Outline | ACT test Syllabus | ACT test Objectives

Test Detail:
The ACT (American College Testing) is a standardized test designed to assess the readiness of high school students for college-level academics. The test consists of multiple-choice questions in five sections: English, Math, Reading, Science, and an optional Writing section. Here is a detailed overview of the ACT test, including the number of questions and time, course outline, test objectives, and test syllabus.

Number of Questions and Time:
The ACT test consists of five sections, each with a different number of questions and time limits:

1. English:
- Number of Questions: 75
- Time Limit: 45 minutes

2. Math:
- Number of Questions: 60
- Time Limit: 60 minutes

3. Reading:
- Number of Questions: 40
- Time Limit: 35 minutes

4. Science:
- Number of Questions: 40
- Time Limit: 35 minutes

5. Writing (Optional):
- Essay Prompt: Provided on the test day
- Time Limit: 40 minutes

Please note that the Writing section is optional, and its inclusion may vary based on the test-taker's preference or the requirements of the colleges or universities they are applying to.

Course Outline:
The ACT does not have a specific course outline, as it is a standardized test aimed at assessing a student's general knowledge and skills. However, test-takers can prepare for the test by focusing on the following key areas:

1. English:
- Usage/Mechanics: Punctuation, grammar, sentence structure, and usage.
- Rhetorical Skills: Style, organization, and strategy.

2. Math:
- Pre-Algebra/Elementary Algebra: Numbers, operations, equations, and inequalities.
- Intermediate Algebra/Coordinate Geometry: Functions, systems of equations, and conic sections.
- Plane Geometry/Trigonometry: Properties of geometric figures, trigonometric functions, and identities.

3. Reading:
- Comprehension: Understanding main ideas, details, and author's tone.
- Analysis: Analyzing relationships, making inferences, and evaluating arguments.

4. Science:
- Interpretation: Analyzing data, charts, graphs, and experimental scenarios.
- Reasoning: Understanding scientific principles, evaluating hypotheses, and drawing conclusions.

Exam Objectives:
The objectives of the ACT test include:
- Assessing the test-taker's readiness for college-level English, Math, Reading, and Science.
- Evaluating problem-solving skills, critical thinking abilities, and analytical reasoning.
- Providing colleges and universities with a standardized measure for admissions and scholarship decisions.

Exam Syllabus:
The ACT test covers a broad range of content areas. The syllabus includes:

1. English Section:
- Usage/Mechanics: Punctuation, grammar, and sentence structure.
- Rhetorical Skills: Style, organization, and strategy.

2. Math Section:
- Pre-Algebra/Elementary Algebra: Numbers, operations, equations, and inequalities.
- Intermediate Algebra/Coordinate Geometry: Functions, systems of equations, and conic sections.
- Plane Geometry/Trigonometry: Properties of geometric figures, trigonometric functions, and identities.

3. practicing Section:
- Prose Fiction: Passage-based questions on fictional texts.
- Social Science: Passage-based questions on social science topics.
- Humanities: Passage-based questions on humanities-related subjects.
- Natural Science: Passage-based questions on scientific topics.

4. Science Section:
- Data Representation: Questions based on graphs, charts, and tables.
- Research Summaries: Questions based on scientific experiments and research.

5. Writing Section (Optional):
- Essay Prompt: Writing a well-structured essay on a given topic.

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Admission-Tests Math, ACTUAL EXAM QUESTIONS

Maths test for Mathematics courses

If you are applying to one of the courses listed below but you are not studying A-level Mathematics or equivalent, they may ask you to take a maths test.

Our first year assumes a sound understanding of mathematics on the syllabus at A-level. If you do not have a maths A-level (or equivalent qualification), they will set you a test to assess your familiarity with that material.

Relevant courses

The information on this page applies to the following maths courses:

BSc Mathematics (G100)

BSc Mathematics with Study Abroad in a Modern Language (G101)

BSc Mathematics with Statistics (G1G3)

BSc Mathematics with Statistics for Finance (G1G4)

BSc Data Science (G1G5)

BSc Data Science with a Year in Industry (G1G6)

BSc Mathematics and Computer Science (GG14)

BSc Mathematics and Philosophy (VG51)

BSc Mathematics and Physics (GFD3)

MEng Mathematics and Computer Science (GG1K)

MSci Mathematics (G103)

MSci Mathematics with Study Abroad (G105)

MSci Mathematics with Study Abroad in a Modern Language (G104)

MSci Mathematics with Statistics (G1GH)

MSci Mathematics and Philosophy (GV15)

MSci Mathematics and Physics (GFC3).

Booking your maths test

If they require you to take the maths test, their Admissions Team will contact you. They will send you an email explaining how to register online.

On the day

On a pre-arranged day the test will be emailed to you. You will have 24 hours to complete the test, scan/photograph and email your written answers back to us. You may refer to notes or texts but you should complete the test without assistance so that they have a reliable test of your mathematical background. This is so they can assure ourselves you can be successful in their first year.

Preparing for the maths test

See Maths test list of subjects (PDF, 121kB) for further information. You are also welcome to view this sample Mathematics test practice paper (PDF, 159kB) in advance.

You can also find specifications and past papers for UK A-level examinations on test board websites, including AQA, Edexcel and OCR.

Your test results

The department will pass your results to the Admissions Team, who are responsible for making decisions on offers. You will be informed of the decision on your application as soon as possible via UCAS.

Accessibility advice

If you are usually entitled to extra time in exams, you must contact the Admissions Team in advance to request additional time. Please see the relevant applicant information document for your test for further information and contact details.

For advice on studying with a disability, contact their Disability Services team on +44 (0)117 331 0444 or disability-services@bristol.ac.uk.

If you have questions or need to change your test date

If you are unsure whether you will be required to sit the maths test, need to change a booked test or if you have any questions about the process, please contact us: math-info@bristol.ac.uk.

What to Know About SAT Math Grid-In Questions

No result found, try new keyword!Grid-in questions ... Admissions Playbook, authored by Varsity Tutors, offers prospective college students advice on Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate courses, SAT and ACT exams ...

Test Optional Policy

Since 1969, we've been selecting the right applicants for Bowdoin, using only the materials that they require of you: your transcripts, your writing, and how your teachers talk about you.

This policy allows applicants to decide for themselves whether or not their SAT or ACT results accurately reflect their academic ability and potential. For candidates electing to submit them, test scores will be reviewed along with other indicators of academic ability.

Forty-six percent of students in the Class of 2026 chose not to submit their scores.

Score Suppression

Applicants indicate on their applications whether they would like Bowdoin to review their standardized test results. Applicants also have the option to select some test types and not others for review (for example, a student might choose to use their SAT scores, but not their ACT). Applicants have until the application deadline to suppress their scores.

For applicants using the Common Application, these questions are located in the Bowdoin-specific questions section of the application.

For applicants using the Coalition on Scoir application, these questions are located in the Application Questions section.

For applicants using the QuestBridge Application, these questions are located on a Bowdoin-specific form available in the applicant portal after submitting the application.

Bowdoin will not review selected sections of an SAT or an ACT score (for example, just the Science portion of the ACT). If an applicant chooses to include scores for a specific test type, Bowdoin will review the complete score for that test type.

Superscoring

Bowdoin will "superscore" the SAT. Meaning, the admissions committee will consider the highest Critical Reading, Math, and Writing Scores submitted by an applicant, irrespective of test date.

Bowdoin will NOT combine results from Redesigned and pre-Redesign SAT exams to create a new total score. They will superscore Redesigned and pre-Redesign results separately, considering the highest section and total scores submitted from either set of results.

Bowdoin also superscores the ACT. The admissions committee will consider the highest submitted Composite score and subsection scores, and will also recalculate a new Composite score from subsection scores earned on different test dates.

Score Reports

For students submitting standardized test scores, they will accept scores that are self-reported on the student’s application, reported by the testing agency, or submitted through the self-report form found in the Bowdoin Application Portal. They accept self-reported scores for all applicants.

Bowdoin will verify scores for all enrolling students. Discrepancies between self-reported and official scores may jeopardize a student’s place at Bowdoin.

Official Score Reports

We will accept scores reported on a school transcript or sent to their office by a school counselor or CBO advisor as official. Official score reports may be sent to their office by email, fax, mail, or directly from the testing agency. Our testing codes are: 3089 (College Board) and 1636 (ACT).

Is standardized testing required for certain applicants?

No. Bowdoin College is test-optional for all applicants. Homeschooled candidates can find further information on additional requirements and recommendations on the Homeschooled Students page.

International applicants can find more information about required English proficiency testing on the International Applicant page.

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Warum sind Cyberrisiken so schwer greifbar?

Als mehr oder weniger neuartiges Phänomen stellen Cyberrisiken Unternehmen und Versicherer vor besondere Herausforderungen. Nicht nur die neuen Schadenszenarien sind abstrakter oder noch nicht bekannt. Häufig sind immaterielle Werte durch Cyberrisiken in Gefahr. Diese wertvollen Vermögensgegenstände sind schwer bewertbar.

Obwohl die Gefahr durchaus wahrgenommen wird, unterschätzen viele Firmen ihr eigenes Risiko. Dies liegt unter anderem auch an den Veröffentlichungen zu Cyberrisiken. In der Presse finden sich unzählige Berichte von Cyberattacken auf namhafte und große Unternehmen. Den Weg in die Presse finden eben nur die spektakulären Fälle. Die dort genannten Schadenszenarien werden dann für das eigene Unternehmen als unrealistisch eingestuft. Die für die KMU nicht minder gefährlichen Cyberattacken werden nur selten publiziert.

Aufgrund der fehlenden öffentlichen Meldungen von Sicherheitsvorfällen an Sicherheitsbehörden und wegen der fehlenden Presseberichte fällt es schwer, Fakten und Zahlen zur Risikolage zu erheben. Aber ohne diese Grundlage fällt es schwer, in entsprechende Sicherheitsmaßnahmen zu investieren.

Erklärungsleitfaden anhand eines Ursache-Wirkungs-Modells

Häufig nähert man sich dem Thema Cyberrisiko anlass- oder eventbezogen, also wenn sich neue Schadenszenarien wie die weltweite WannaCry-Attacke entwickeln. Häufig wird auch akteursgebunden beleuchtet, wer Angreifer oder Opfer sein kann. Dadurch begrenzt man sich bei dem Thema häufig zu sehr nur auf die Cyberkriminalität. Um dem Thema Cyberrisiko jedoch gerecht zu werden, müssen auch weitere Ursachen hinzugezogen werden.

Mit einer Kategorisierung kann das Thema ganzheitlich und nachvollziehbar strukturiert werden. Ebenso hilft eine solche Kategorisierung dabei, eine Abgrenzung vorzunehmen, für welche Gefahren Versicherungsschutz über eine etwaige Cyberversicherung besteht und für welche nicht.

Die Ursachen sind dabei die Risiken, während finanzielle bzw. nicht finanzielle Verluste die Wirkungen sind. Cyberrisiken werden demnach in zwei Hauptursachen eingeteilt. Auf der einen Seite sind die nicht kriminellen Ursachen und auf der anderen Seite die kriminellen Ursachen zu nennen. Beide Ursachen können dabei in drei Untergruppen unterteilt werden.

Nicht kriminelle Ursachen

Höhere Gewalt

Häufig hat man bei dem Thema Cyberrisiko nur die kriminellen Ursachen vor Augen. Aber auch höhere Gewalt kann zu einem empfindlichen Datenverlust führen oder zumindest die Verfügbarkeit von Daten einschränken, indem Rechenzentren durch Naturkatastrophen wie beispielsweise Überschwemmungen oder Erdbeben zerstört werden. Ebenso sind Stromausfälle denkbar.

Menschliches Versagen/Fehlverhalten

Als Cyberrisiken sind auch unbeabsichtigtes und menschliches Fehlverhalten denkbar. Hierunter könnte das versehentliche Veröffentlichen von sensiblen Informationen fallen. Möglich sind eine falsche Adressierung, Wahl einer falschen Faxnummer oder das Hochladen sensibler Daten auf einen öffentlichen Bereich der Homepage.

Technisches Versagen

Auch Hardwaredefekte können zu einem herben Datenverlust führen. Neben einem Überhitzen von Rechnern sind Kurzschlüsse in Systemtechnik oder sogenannte Headcrashes von Festplatten denkbare Szenarien.

Kriminelle Ursachen

Hackerangriffe

Hackerangriffe oder Cyberattacken sind in der Regel die Szenarien, die die Presse dominieren. Häufig wird von spektakulären Datendiebstählen auf große Firmen oder von weltweiten Angriffen mit sogenannten Kryptotrojanern berichtet. Opfer kann am Ende aber jeder werden. Ziele, Methoden und auch das Interesse sind vielfältig. Neben dem finanziellen Interesse können Hackerangriffe auch zur Spionage oder Sabotage eingesetzt werden. Mögliche Hackermethoden sind unter anderem: Social Engineering, Trojaner, DoS-Attacken oder Viren.

Physischer Angriff

Die Zielsetzung eines physischen Angriffs ist ähnlich dem eines Hackerangriffs. Dabei wird nicht auf die Tools eines Hackerangriffs zurückgegriffen, sondern durch das physische Eindringen in Unternehmensgebäude das Ziel erreicht. Häufig sind es Mitarbeiter, die vertrauliche Informationen stehlen, da sie bereits den notwendigen Zugang zu den Daten besitzen.

Erpressung

Obwohl die Erpressung aufgrund der eingesetzten Methoden auch als Hackerangriff gewertet werden könnte, ergibt eine Differenzierung Sinn. Erpressungsfälle durch Kryptotrojaner sind eines der häufigsten Schadenszenarien für kleinere und mittelständische Unternehmen. Außerdem sind auch Erpressungsfälle denkbar, bei denen sensible Daten gestohlen wurden und ein Lösegeld gefordert wird, damit sie nicht veröffentlicht oder weiterverkauft werden.

Ihre Cyberversicherung sollte zumindet folgende Schäden abdecken:

Cyber-Kosten:

Soforthilfe und Forensik-Kosten (Kosten der Ursachenermittlung, Benachrichtigungskosten und Callcenter-Leistung)
Krisenkommunikation / PR-Maßnahmen
Systemverbesserungen nach einer Cyber-Attacke
Aufwendungen vor Eintritt des Versicherungsfalls

Cyber-Drittschäden (Haftpflicht):

Befriedigung oder Abwehr von Ansprüchen Dritter
Rechtswidrige elektronische Kommunikation
Ansprüche der E-Payment-Serviceprovider
Vertragsstrafe wegen der Verletzung von Geheimhaltungspflichten und Datenschutzvereinbarungen
Vertragliche Schadenersatzansprüche
Vertragliche Haftpflicht bei Datenverarbeitung durch Dritte
Rechtsverteidigungskosten

Cyber-Eigenschäden:

Betriebsunterbrechung
Betriebsunterbrechung durch Ausfall von Dienstleister (optional)
Mehrkosten
Wiederherstellung von Daten (auch Entfernen der Schadsoftware)
Cyber-Diebstahl: elektronischer Zahlungsverkehr, fehlerhafter Versand von Waren, Telefon-Mehrkosten/erhöhte Nutzungsentgelte
Cyber-Erpressung
Entschädigung mit Strafcharakter/Bußgeld
Ersatz-IT-Hardware
Cyber-Betrug